Tuesday, August 11, 2020
Unconditioned Stimulus in Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus in Classical Conditioning Theories Behavioral Psychology Print Unconditioned Stimulus in Classical Conditioning By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on October 08, 2019 Tara Moore / Getty Images More in Theories Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In the learning process known as classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. ??In other words, the response takes place without any prior learning. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. Examples of the Unconditioned Stimulus In Ivan Pavlovs classic experiment with dogs, the smell of food was the unconditioned stimulus. The dogs in his experiment would smell the food, and then naturally begin to salivate in response. This response requires no learning, and it simply happens automatically. Some more examples of the unconditioned stimulus include: A feather tickling your nose causes you to sneeze. The feather tickling your nose is the unconditioned stimulus.Cutting up an onion makes your eyes water. The onion is the unconditioned stimulus.Pollen from grass and flowers cause you to sneeze. The pollen is the unconditioned stimulus.Your cat running to its bowl whenever it smells food. The scent of food is the unconditioned stimulus.A loud bang causes you to flinch away from the sound. The unexpected loud noise is the unconditioned stimulus because it automatically triggers a response with no prior learning. In each of these examples, the unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers an unconditioned response or reflex. You dont have to learn to respond to the unconditioned stimulus - it simply occurs automatically. The Role of the Neutral Stimulus For the purposes of classical conditioning or learning, you cant have an unconditioned stimulus without a neutral stimulus. In other words, for conditioning to take place, you must first start by pairing a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. A neutral stimulus doesnt trigger any particular response at first, but when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, it can effectively stimulate learning. A good example of a neutral stimulus is a sound or a song. When it is initially presented, the neutral stimulus has no effect on behavior. As it is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, it will begin to cause the same response as the UCS. For example, the sound of a squeaky door opening may initially be a neutral stimulus. If that sound is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, such as you feeding your cat, that sound will eventually come to trigger a change in your cats behavior. Once an association has been formed, you cat may react as if it is being fed every time it hears the squeaky door open. How Timing Impacts Acquisition or Learning of a Behavior Throughout the classical conditioning process, there are a number of different factors that can influence how quickly associations are learned. How much time that passes between presenting the initially neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is one of the most important factors in whether or not learning will actually occur. The timing of how the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented is what influences whether or not an association will be formed, a principle that is known as the congruity hypothesis. How the UCS Works in Classical Conditioning In Ivan Pavlovs famous experiment, for example, the tone of the bell was initially a neutral stimulus while the smell of food was the unconditioned stimulus. Presenting the tone close to presenting the smell of food results in a stronger association. Ringing the bell, the neutral stimulus, long before the unconditioned stimulus leads to a much weaker or even nonexistent association. Different types of conditioning may use different timing or order between the neutral stimulus and the UCS. In simultaneous conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented at the exact time as the unconditioned stimulus. This type of conditioning leads to weak learning.In backward conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is given first and the neutral stimulus is presented afterward. This type of conditioning also tends to result in weak learning.In trace conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented briefly and then stopped, then the unconditioned stimulus is presented. This type of conditioning produces good results.In delayed conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented and continues while the unconditioned stimulus is offered. This type of conditioned produces the best results. How New Behaviors Are Acquired by Using Acquisition
Saturday, May 23, 2020
A Code Of Ethics Limits The Development Of Psychological...
Discussion of the claim that ‘adherence to a code of ethics limits the development of psychological theory’ The introduction of the Nuremberg Code in 1947 was a direct consequence of the Nuremberg Trials in which various Nazi doctors were found guilty of carrying out brutal and heinous research experiments on humans during the second World War. Subsequently, the key principles contained in the Code became the basis of ethical behaviour in any medical or psychological research which includes the involvement of human participants (cited in Banyard, 2012). It is now universally understood that the health, safety, wellbeing and human rights of every research study participant is protected. Conversely, it is the opinion of some that the introduction of the Nuremberg Code has resulted in limitations to the results obtained from these research studies, and, as a result, to the development of psychological theory. It is the purpose of this essay, therefore, to address the claim that adhering to a code of ethics limits the development of psychological theory. In the paragraphs to follow, vari ous evidence and alternative viewpoints will be provided both for and against this claim, as well as an evaluation of the impact in adhering to these ethical principles for researchers. One such research study to be criticised on the basis of ethical behaviour was designed to study obedience and authority using human participants (Milgram, 1961). In the presence of an authoritarianShow MoreRelatedIndividual Analysis1449 Words  | 6 Pagesneeds on a daily basis. I collaborate with mental health professionals to address psychological needs, medical doctors to manage and treat physical conditions, social workers to deal with housing and family issues, and pastoral care to address the patient’s spiritual matters. I believe that issues of mind, body, and spirit must be equally addressed for complete patient care. Legal Regulations The Ohio Revised Code sets the legal standards through which a nurse is permitted to practice. NursingRead MoreEffects Of Video Games On Children Essay1357 Words  | 6 Pagesreview is to analyse the key themes emerging in research relating to this thesis. Key themes include psychological and cognitive behavioural problems, development risks and their relationship with technology addiction, dependency and screen time exposure. Theories found are self-determination theory. The methodology in all of the literature focuses on children. However, the Unitec code of ethics restricts subjects under the age of 18 to be included in any methods of research; therefore the methodologyRead MoreWhat Are Military Ethics?1056 Words  | 5 PagesDiscussion 1. What are military ethics? Military ethics can mean a wide range of things. 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This information can be used to explore phenomena, answer questions, generate new theory, and solve problems. DNPs need to be familiar with the components and levels of abstraction in nursing knowledge. The way to comprehend this information is by using the structuralRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Psychology1228 Words  | 5 Pagespsychology after his book Princ iples of Physiological Psychology argued that psychology should be studied as it s own distinct scientific discipline rather than a sub-category of physiology. In 1879, Wundt founded the first laboratory of scientific psychological research at the University of Leipzig. He was very influential and over the years, thousands of students attended his lectures. People from across the globe went to Wundt to earn their doctorates. He even taught Edward B. Titchener, who foundedRead MoreChildhood Depression : A Serious Disorder Among Adolescents1743 Words  | 7 PagesSwendsen, He, Burstein, Merikangas, 2015). Adolescent depression is associated with impairments in various important psychosocial areas, such as school, peer, and family functioning (Jaycox et al., 2009). As adolescence is an important time for development and a very vulnerable time, it is important to treat anything that may cause impairments as quickly and as effectively as possible. It is also important to understand t he causes of the teen’s depression when working towards recovery. ResearchRead MoreThe Experimental Validation Of Theory1621 Words  | 7 Pages3.9 STAGE THREE: EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THEORY The conceptual framework combines the research carried out at the beginning of the study with the analysis of the use of existing, as well as the demand for new e-assessment instruments for NNES students learning outcome. It directs to develop a diagnostic tool that can be utilised by students and teachers in an e-assessment context which will empower the higher education sector and improve the conditions for continuous learning. On the surveysRead MoreHow Suicide Is The Leading Cause Of Death Worldwide?1706 Words  | 7 Pagescauses of death worldwide (Hardt et al., 2010). Self-harm is common for adolescence because this stage of life involves an evolving period of physical, psychological, and social development often characterized by confusion and frustration about identity. Erik Erikson identifies this life stage as Identity versus Role Confusion. Based on this theory, Kevin’s sense of self seems to be distorted. He has suffered from a sport’s injury that has now cost him to have to receive expensive and painful treatments
Tuesday, May 12, 2020
Marketing Plan For A Brand Image - 766 Words
A brand image is defined in terms of how the customers perceive the brand (Allen, 2016). A brand image constitutes the basis for better strategic marketing decisions on the target market segments for the product position in the market. The entrepreneur should attempt to build a unique brand image which will differentiate his product or service from others in the industry (Lee, James, Kim, 2014). La Bambinià ¨re has its name as the brand image which derives from the French word â€Å"Bambin†or little child; and the purpose is to create an attraction just with the name. In addition, La Bambinià ¨re will design a symbol depicting infants being nurtured. Advertising and Marketing Allen (2016) states that the marketing plan details the strategies make customers aware of the business, and build a brand and a loyal customer base. When effective, the plan develops a consistent message to the customer and creates an opportunity to capture revenues. La Bambinià ¨re will consider advertising through the local journal, the monthly city magazine, flyers and business card. Publicize the Business The first venue will be data base provided by the NCDCDEE where parents can search for all licensed child care providers. La Bambinià ¨re will get referrals or word of mouth from family and friends, church members. Publicity and word of mouth are considered most effective marketing tools because they are inexpensive (Allen, 2016). Referrals will mostly come from the Division of ChildShow MoreRelatedHbr Dove Case1653 Words  | 7 PagesSummary The Dove brand has been revitalized with the success of their â€Å"Real Beauty†campaign. Dove’s main goals are to continue to improve their brand image and gain market share. The key challenges facing top management to accomplish these goals are; building on the momentum the ‘Real Beauty’ campaign has generated, differentiating from their competition and modernizing their brand image. I am recommending that Dove should continue to stay the current course of designing marketing campaigns to redefineRead MorePerceptual Maps in Marketing1180 Words  | 5 PagesPerceptual Maps in Marketing Simulation Summary Thorr Motorcycles, Incorporated manufactures various models of motorcycles, and is a $5 billion company. The CruiserThorr power cruiser model provides the company a high brand image in the market, but sales are decreasing. The company contributes the decline to the aging target customers who purchase the cruiser as a lifestyle symbol, and the high cost of the motorcycle. Thorr must reverse the falling sales by developing a marketing plan with the use ofRead MoreThe University Of Mississippi Brand Essay1534 Words  | 7 PagesXIII. Discussion 1. The University of Mississippi brand was strong enough to withstand scrutiny and undergo brand image changes (Customer Loyalty). During the image revamp, enrollment and the numbers of minorities increased. 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Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Zodiac Sign Free Essays
Thomas Hotte                                                                                                  Ms. Boyd Personality profile                                                                                           Period 3 The article on Cancer fits me for the most part. It says my positive traits are â€Å"loyal, dependable, caring, adaptable, and responsive. We will write a custom essay sample on Zodiac Sign or any similar topic only for you Order Now †A cancer is a very complex person when it comes to independence. They’re very contradicting and they’re independence has to do with there state of mind. I’m like the description of a cancer because it says we have the perseverance and drive to do what we need to do and can be self sufficient. Although we don’t need someone to depend or we prefer to have someone there to help and support us like our family and close friends. What’s not as accurate is that it says we crave attention but I don’t like drawing attention to myself most of the time, I usually just like blending in. Like the horoscope says I am loyal to my friends and family who appreciate me and support me. I always do look out for my friends and I hate seeing my friends who are girls be sad so I always try to make them feel better like it says. Its also true that even though im good at listening to other people I never talk about my own feelings. Its also true because once I get past all of my emotional and personal problems I can do whatever I set my mind to I wouldn’t really say im psychic but I can be intuitive at times intelligent and observing. i have money and financial sensibility. I am complex, unpredictable, and tempermental. Im not really a fragile person, a lot of things don’t bother me. I can be How to cite Zodiac Sign, Papers
Sunday, May 3, 2020
Diffusion Method Using Agar Disc
Question: Discuss the most common and widely used methods for the detection of antibiotics sensitivity against antimicrobial agent? Answer: Introduction One of the most common and widely used methods for the detection of antibiotics sensitivity against antimicrobial agent is the diffusion method using agar disc (Piddock, 1990, pp.307). The principle behind this method is to determine the extent of inhibition of microbial reproduction over the solid surface of medium plate in present of antimicrobial agent. These antimicrobial agents will be applied over a filter plate, which diffuses into the solid surface of medium (Acar Goldstein, 1996, pp.1). In a typical experiment of antibiotic disk sensitivity test, there will be a zone of inhibition around the target site impregnated with antimicrobial agent. This inhibition is referred to as inhibition of the reproduction of the microorganism, due to the antimicrobial action of the concerned agent. It is important to mention that the action and inhibitory effect of agent is specific and hence the resistance zone as well as the size cutoff for each antibiotic is different. The interpretation of the said test is thus referred to accurate calculation of this inhibitory diameter zone (Andrews, 2001, pp.43). The materials that are used for this test include more than 15 hours of culture for Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. A sterile cotton swab should be used for swabbing over the agar plates (Olsson-Liljequist, 1996, pp.13). The swabbing should be done in such a way the in case nothing is added to the plates; there should be a confluent growth over the plate. Antibiotics disc will be applied to the plate to experiment the inhibitory growth of the corresponding antibiotic agent (Reller, 2009, pp.1749). Once the said procedure will be over, the plates should be incubated for next 1-2 days at 370 C. The final measurement of the inhibition zone will be executed with the help of ruler (in millimeters). The pattern of antibiotics inhibitory effect should indicate the pathogenicity and corresponding natural habitat related characteristics (Wilkins, 1972, pp.451). Discussion With reference to above introductory information, the sensitivity of six individual antibiotics were obtained as referred to table. Table: Displaying the sensitivity of individual antibiotics. Antibiotics Inhibition zone (mm) Resistance/sensitivity Ampicillin 33 Sensitive Tigercycline 25 Resistance Ciprofloxacin 22 Sensitive Chloramphenic 27 Sensitive Gentamicin 22 Sensitive Penicillin 0 Resistance From the obtained results, it was revealed that culture disk were resistant against two antimicrobial agents, viz. Tigercycline and Penicillin. The remaining six culture disks were found to be sensitive with respect to antimicrobial agents, which are Ampicillin, Ciprofloxacin, Chloramphenic and Gentamicin. The concerned inhibition zone found in mm were indicative for the concerned results of resistance or sensitivity. Considering the ampicillin, the culture results are specific when considered against gram-negative rods and enterococci, while the same results with respect to inhibition zone is different when tested against staphylococci and penicillin sensitive organisms. In the former culture condition, the susceptible zone is 14 mm, which illustrates the sensitivity, whereas when it appears to be 20 mm, it is referred to as sensitive in later case (Thomson Sanders, 1992, pp.1877). The data referring in given table is 33mm, and hence can be depict to be tested against either of the two cases. Tigercycline is referred to as broad spectrum antibiotics, which is effective in case of certain tetracycline resistant gram positive as well as gram negative organisms, such as Streptococcus pneumonia, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (Wang, 2012, pp.1240). In the present table, the inhibition zone appears to be 25 mm, and still the strain is referred to as resistance. It is possible that the used strain is metallo lactamase producing strains. Other possibility is that the strain used for disk inhibition test belongs to Campylobacter strains (Lehtopolku, 2010, pp.1232). Ciprofloxacin when tested at 5 g, was found to be resistant with inhibition diameter of 15 mm or less. Likewise, it is intermediate in terms of inhibitory activity, when the concerned value appears to be between 16 mm to 20 mm. The suspecibility of stains are resistant in case the inhibition zone diameter appears to be more than 21 mm (Kahlmeter, 2003, pp.145). The results are appeared in table depicts a value of 22, and hence is sensitive in the culture. These strains are aerobic gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Chloramphenic is also found to have activity criteria at disk potency concentration of 30 g. The concerned testing is referred to as resistant against the culture when the inhibition diameter appears to be 12 mm or less that this value. Likewise, it is referred to as intermediate potency against the culture disk, when the inhibition diameter value appears to be 13 mm to 17 mm. The disk inhibition value of 18 mm and above is referred to as value for susceptible against the culture. Owing to the characteristics of Chloramphenic, the culture stains must be gram negative in nature (Badal, 1995). The concerned values for gentamicin is valuable when the disk potency concentration adopted is 10 g in concentration. The value for inhibition zone of 12 mm or less is termed as resistant against the disk culture. Similarly, the value of disk inhibition zone diameter of 13 mm to 14 mm, is referred to as intermediate in action. The antimicrobial activity of gentamicin is referred to as susceptible against the culture, when the inhibition zone diameter appears to be more than a value of 18 mm. In the present table, the value appears to be 22. In general, it was known that gentamycin is susceptible against gram-negative bacteria (Wilkins Thiel, 1973, pp.350). Lastly, the said testing is observed against pencillin, which is found to be resistant against in genral upto a concentration of 10 units. It is hence the diskinhibition zone diameter was found to be zero. In general, it is known that lactamases (which are also referred to as penicillinases) are resistant against penicillin. The enzyme deactivates penicillin by destroying the lactam ring with the help of process called chemical hydrolysis (Brown Brown, 1991, pp.185). In conclusion, it can be said that the above table refers to the testing of disk inhibition diameter with respect to lactamases strain. References: ACAR, J. F., GOLDSTEIN, F. W. (1996). Disk susceptibility test. Antibiotics in laboratory medicine, 4, pp.1-51. ANDREWS, J. M., BSAC WORKING PARTY ON SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING. (2001). BSAC standardized disc susceptibility testing method. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 48(suppl 1), pp.43-57. BADAL, R., KELLEY, R., SAND, T. T., BASCOMB, S. (1995). U.S. Patent No. 5,457,030. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. BROWN, D. F., BROWN, L. (1991). Evaluation of the E test, a novel method of quantifying antimicrobial activity. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 27(2), pp.185-190 KAHLMETER, G., BROWN, D. F., GOLDSTEIN, F. W., MACGOWAN, A. P., MOUTON, J. W., STERLUND, A., ... VATOPOULOS, A. (2003). European harmonization of MIC breakpoints for antimicrobial susceptibility testing of bacteria. Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 52(2), pp.145-148. LEHTOPOLKU, M., NAKARI, U. M., KOTILAINEN, P., HUOVINEN, P., SIITONEN, A., HAKANEN, A. J. (2010). Antimicrobial susceptibilities of multidrug-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli strains: in vitro activities of 20 antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 54(3), pp.1232-1236. OLSSON-LILJEQUIST, B., LARSSON, P., WALDER, M., MIRNER, H. (1996). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing in Sweden. III. Methodology for susceptibility testing. Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases. Supplementum, 105, pp.13-23. PIDDOCK, L. J. (1990). Techniques used for the determination of antimicrobial resistance and sensitivity in bacteria. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 68(4), pp.307-318. RELLER, L. B., WEINSTEIN, M., JORGENSEN, J. H., FERRARO, M. J. (2009). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing: a review of general principles and contemporary practices. Clinical infectious diseases, 49(11), pp.1749-1755. THOMSON, K. S., SANDERS, C. C. (1992). Detection of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae: comparison of the double-disk and three-dimensional tests. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 36(9), pp.1877-1882. WANG, L., LIU, Y., YANG, Y., HUANG, G., WANG, C., DENG, L., ... SHEN, X. (2012). Multidrug-resistant clones of community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from Chinese children and the resistance genes to clindamycin and mupirocin. Journal of medical microbiology, 61(Pt 9), pp.1240-1247. WILKINS, T. D., HOLDEMAN, L. V., ABRAMSON, I. J., MOORE, W. E. C. (1972). Standardized single-disc method for antibiotic susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 1(6), pp.451-459. WILKINS, T. D., THIEL, T. (1973). Modified broth-disk method for testing the antibiotic susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 3(3), pp.350-356.
Tuesday, March 24, 2020
Teenager Of Alcoholics
Introduction Acceptance is a feeling that emerges from individual’s need for approval and acceptance. This behavioural pattern begins at an early age and continues although life to adulthood but it is at peak during teenage stage. The teenagers are in the process of emulating or declining the parental guidance since they need their freedom and at the same time are trying to win the parental support and acceptance. Their strong struggle to exist as part of a family thus increases the urgency for independent need for finding an identity. The quest for parental approval motivates the teenager behaviours.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teenager Of Alcoholics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although parental pressure ought to be a positive influence over personality, it can negatively affect decision-making procedures and cause a teenager to settle for immoral activities including alcoholism in fight against an abusive or tough situation. When one accepts to put up with negative parental pressure such as alcoholism, they end up giving up the personal trusts and values, thus the pressure becomes a form of a negative force. Thesis Statement â€Å"Does alcoholism affect parental guidance?†This paper is an analysis of the effect of parental pressure regarding usage of alcohol and its effects as well as implication to the future life of a teenager. It is an analysis of the parental behavioural patterns and lastly it analyzes the available perspectives into controlling the vice. Objective/significance of the study The main objective of the paper focuses on causes of alcohol abuse among parents and evaluates the developmental problems associated with this type of vice. Another significance of the study focuses on the global approach towards curbing the vice and creating public awareness over alcoholism. The paper also forms an analysis over issue of other probable cause in th e subject matter. Are parents considering the appropriate measures to avoid the vice? The analysis of what determines alcoholisms. Lastly, it addresses the issue of utilizing the new professional suggested measures to getting rid of this common phenomenon. Insinuations for understanding behaviour In most cases, it would be invariable to have a linkage between development of the brain and the behaviours emulated by teenagers. Scientifically the argument over the link indicates that under high emotional or intense parental pressure, there are some conditions during maturity, that necessitate devastating inexplicable performance leading to poor decision making such as use of alcohol. (Marina and Fergal, 2006) The teenagers have the ability and rationale to differentiate between the right and wrong. This is an indication that the brain has the capacity to demonstrate some mental ability to decision making, but the teenager acts in opposition to this expectations. According to Nestler an d Malenka, (2004) the brains of a teenager is under some less optimal control mechanisms and thus under higher probability to act from guts or instincts when confronted with stressful or emotional strains. Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Compared to adults, on average, the teenagers are more impetuous, insistent, volatile emotionally, high risk takers, proactive and reactive to strain or stress and are susceptible to parental pressure or guidance (Kane, 2009). Most parents focus on the short time thus underrating any long-term consequences that may be involved in alcoholism. They overlook the alternative course of actions. The developing brain of a teenager Young people are often curious about alcohol and thus the common definition of the teenage years being a time of experimenting and seeking novelty. Conducted survey indicates that abuse of alcohol and tobacco is a common phenomenon among most parents today (Marina and Fergal, 2006). As a result, at least half or more of the teenagers try out the alcohol during the teenager stage and nearly all have tried before reaching the legal age. These days the youth show higher rates of or percentage of alcohol problems as opposed to the older age groups. (Kane, 2009) Vulnerability of teenagers to alcoholism The teenager brain may be more vulnerable to social pressure or discomforts due to sensitivity. These social effects can bring about pleasurable social experiences such as alcohol engagement as they seek expectations. The effects of alcohol are enormous on teenagers compared to adults. In the studies of teenagers indicated by Partrick (2008), characteristically, teenagers are able to get through two or three times more alcohol than the adults because their intoxication effects are much higher. They have a diminished sensitivity to intoxication due to the high metabolic rates. The hormones also play a vita l role in the alcohol abuse. The teenagers have novelty to seek and promote competitiveness socially. The production of hormones promotes abuse because of the original occurrence of parental pressure for the individual to seek social approval from the parent. (Partrick, 2008) Teenagers’ growth and development Expectations for growth and social, emotional, behavioural, physical and cognitive change is very important. Through analysis of some developmental life-span stages, there is a possibility of determining disorders or crisis brought about by alcoholic parents. There are unique kind of behavioural pattern to expect from teenagers thus the need to suggest developmental concerns and appropriate actions. Human beings have to make decisions based on challenges at hand. The teenagers face many challenges such as inevitable physical changes and parental pressure especially over making decisions on impulsive activities. (Marina and Fergal, 2006) These transitional issues are of c ritical concerns regarding identity choices, self-esteem and emotional development. Their appearance to others is an important issue because they believe to own unique problems and all the public attention focuses particularly upon them. They face the challenges of discovering their identity in terms of vocation, relationship, sexuality, gender, life interests, personality, culture and most importantly parental background (Marina and Fergal, 2006). Abusive parents cause conflicts, because of the need to find self-belonging and the desire for freedom especially during the emotionally stressing times. This is the main effect of alcohol abusive parents/guardians. Parental pressure should serve the role of determining the right character in a person. This is arguably the reason why teenagers mimic parental lifestyles. Parental pressure is more often hard to resist because it is equally very hard to notice. Teenagers ought to know that personal choices are very important even when the p arental pressure is irresistible.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teenager Of Alcoholics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The strongest predictor of alcohol usage during teenage years is the parental influence. The parent initiate the use, provides the alcohol and models the use and abuse behaviors and attitudes during growth. Studies have indicated that teens are more likely to give in to alcoholism usage if they were from alcoholic parents. (Marina and Fergal 2006) The parental pressure relates to modeling personality. Conclusion Social settings can give the impression that drug usage is under control but a closer look at the phenomenon indicates that everyday a teenager is starting to use and becomes addicted to the vice. Possibly the parental pressure involved in the family setup is greater for most of them to resist (Partrick, 2004). Today most of the parents are full-time employees probably lookin g for the overtime and better remuneration in support of the family. They may be trying to workout one area while the other collapses. The answer to the problems associated with teenagers lies within the family setting. They are emulating their parents who are their first role models; they embrace the social settings of alcoholism and the solitary usage. Stressing parental abuse may also impact negatively on them. Whichever the case, parents are the most effective cure to the vice. It is a parental responsibility to solve alcoholic problem and talk out with the teenage children on the dangers involved before things are out of hand. Their temporary rebellion against the parents can easily lead to the repercussions thus leading to the catastrophic impacts. The early interventions by the parents are thus the best procedures to cubing the vice. The strength of character that assists the child to resists the negative influences directly connects to the parental roles of guidance. Refere nces Partrick, B. J. (2008). Adolescents and Risk: Making Sense of Adolescents Psychology. Praeger Publishers Marina, B. Fergal, K. (2006). Drug Addiction and Families: Monitoring the Future National Survey results on drug use. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Nestler, E. J., and Malenka, R. C. (2004). The addicted brain. Scientific American Journal, 290 (3), 78-85.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kane, R. (2009). Pleasure consuming medicine: The queer politics of drugs. Journal of Alcohol Health and Research World, Duke University Press. Vol 26(4), Pp. 287-291. This research paper on Teenager Of Alcoholics was written and submitted by user Catalina B. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.
Friday, March 6, 2020
The Archaeology and History of Bitumen
The Archaeology and History of Bitumen Bitumen- also known as asphaltum or tar- is a black, oily, viscous form of petroleum, a naturally-occurring organic byproduct of decomposed plants. It is waterproof and flammable, and this remarkable natural substance has been used by humans for a wide variety of tasks and tools for at least the past 40,000 years. There are a number of processed types of bitumen used in the modern world, designed for paving streets and roofing houses, as well as additives to diesel or other gas oils. The pronunciation of bitumen is BICH-eh-men in British English and by-TOO-men in North America. What Bitumen Is Natural bitumen is the thickest form of petroleum there is, made up of 83% carbon, 10% hydrogen and lesser amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements. It is a natural polymer of low molecular weight with a remarkable ability to change with temperature variations: at lower temperatures, it is rigid and brittle, at room temperature it is flexible, at higher temperatures bitumen flows. Bitumen deposits occur naturally throughout the worldthe best known are Trinidads Pitch Lake and the La Brea Tar Pit in California, but significant deposits are found in the Dead Sea, Venezuela, Switzerland, and northeastern Alberta, Canada. The chemical composition and consistency of these deposits vary significantly. In some places, bitumen extrudes naturally from terrestrial sources, in others it appears in liquid pools which can harden into mounds, and in still others it oozes from underwater seeps, washing up as tarballs along sandy beaches and rocky shorelines. Uses and Processing In ancient times, bitumen was used for a huge number of things: as a sealant or adhesive, as building mortar, as incense, and as decorative pigment and texture on pots, buildings or human skin. The material was also useful in waterproofing canoes and other water transport, and in the mummification process toward the end of the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt. The method of processing bitumen was nearly universal: heat it until the gasses condense and it melts, then add tempering materials to tweak the recipe to the proper consistency. Adding minerals such as ochre makes bitumen thicker; grasses and other vegetable matter add stability; waxy/oily elements such as pine resin or beeswax make it more viscous. Processed bitumen was more expensive as a trade item than unprocessed, because of the cost of the fuel consumption. The earliest known use of bitumen was by Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals some 40,000 years ago. At Neanderthal sites such as Gura Cheii Cave (Romania) and Hummal and Umm El Tlel in Syria, bitumen was found adhering to stone tools, probably to fasten a wooden or ivory haft to the sharp-edged tools. In Mesopotamia, during the late Uruk and Chalcolithic periods at sites such as Hacinebi Tepe in Syria, bitumen was used for the construction of buildings and water-proofing of reed boats, with among other uses. Evidence of Uruk Expansionist Trade Research into bitumen sources has illuminated the history of the expansionist period of Mesopotamian Uruk. An intercontinental trading system was established by Mesopotamia during the Uruk period (3600-3100 BC), with the creation of trading colonies in what is today southeastern Turkey, Syria, and Iran. According to seals and other evidence, the trade network involved textiles from southern Mesopotamia and copper, stone, and timber from Anatolia, but the presence of sourced bitumen has enabled scholars to map out the trade. For example, much of the bitumen in Bronze age Syrian sites has been found to have originated from the Hit seepage on the Euphrates River in southern Iraq. Using historical references and geological survey, scholars have identified several sources of bitumen in Mesopotamia and the Near East. By performing analyses using a number of different spectroscopy, spectrometry, and elemental analytical techniques, these scholars have defined the chemical signatures for many of the seeps and deposits. Chemical analysis of archaeological samples has been somewhat successful in identifying the provenance of the artifacts. Bitumen and Reed Boats Schwartz and colleagues (2016) suggest that the onset of bitumen as a trade good began first because it was used as waterproofing on the reed boats that were used to ferry people and goods across the Euphrates. By the Ubaid period of the early 4th millennium BC, bitumen from northern Mesopotamian sources reached the Persian Gulf. The earliest reed boat discovered to date was coated with bitumen, at the site of H3 at As-Sabiyah in Kuwait, dated about 5000 BC; its bitumen was found to have come from the Ubaid site of Mesopotamia. Asphaltum samples from the slightly later site of Dosariyah in Saudi Arabia, were from bitumen seepages in Iraq, part of the wider Mesopotamian trade networks of Ubaid Period 3. The Bronze Age Mummies of Egypt The use of bitumen in embalming techniques on Egyptian mummies was important beginning at the end of the New Kingdom (after 1100 BC)in fact, the word from which mummy is derived mumiyyah means bitumen in Arabic. Bitumen was a major constituent for Third Intermediate period and Roman period Egyptian embalming techniques, in addition to traditional blends of pine resins, animal fats, and beeswax. Several Roman writers such as Diodorus Siculus (first century BC) and Pliny (first century AD) mention bitumen as being sold to Egyptians for embalming processes. Until advanced chemical analysis was available, black balms used throughout the Egyptian dynasties were assumed to have been treated with bitumen, mixed with fat/oil, beeswax, and resin. However, in a recent study Clark and colleagues (2016) found that none of the balms on mummies created prior to the New Kingdom contained bitumen, but the custom began in the Third Intermediate (ca 1064-525 BC) and Late (ca 525-332 BC) periods and became most prevalent after 332, during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Bitumen trade in Mesopotamia continued well after the end of the Bronze Age. Russian archaeologists recently discovered a Greek amphora full of bitumen on the Taman peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea. Several samples including numerous large jars and other objects were recovered from the Roman-era port of Dibba in the United Arab Emirates, containing or treated with bitumen from the Hit seepage in Iraq or other unidentified Iranian sources. Mesoamerica and Sutton Hoo Recent studies in pre-Classic and post-classic period Mesoamerica have found bitumen was used to stain human remains, perhaps as a ritual pigment. But more likely, say researchers Argez and associates, the staining may have resulted from using heated bitumen applied to stone tools which were used to dismember those bodies. Fragments of shiny black lumps of bitumen were found scattered throughout the 7th-century ship burial at Sutton Hoo, England, in particular within the burial deposits near remains of a helmet. When excavated and first analyzed in 1939, the pieces were interpreted as Stockholm tar, a substance creating by burning pine wood, but recent reanalysis (Burger and colleagues 2016) has identified the shards as bitumen having come from a Dead Sea source: very rare but clear evidence of a continuing trade network between Europe and the Mediterranean during the early Medieval period. Chumash of California In Californias Channel Islands, the prehistoric period Chumash used bitumen as body paint during curing, mourning and burial ceremonies. They also used it to attach shell beads onto objects such as mortars and pestles and steatite pipes, and they used it for hafting projectile points to shafts and fishhooks to cordage. Asphaltum was also used for waterproofing basketry and caulking sea-going canoes. The earliest identified bitumen in the Channel Islands so far is in deposits dated between 10,000-7,000 cal BP at Cave of the Chimneys on San Miguel island. The presence of bitumen increases during the Middle Holocene (7000-3500 cal BP and basketry impressions and clusters of tarred pebbles show up as early as 5,000 years ago. The fluorescence of bitumen may be associated with the invention of the plank canoe (tomol) in the late Holocene (3500-200 cal BP). Native Californians traded asphaltum in liquid form and hand-shaped pads wrapped in grass and rabbit skin to keep it from sticking together. Terrestrial seeps were believed to produce a better quality adhesive and caulking for the tomol canoe, while tarballs were considered inferior. Sources Argez C, Batta E, Mansilla J, Pijoan C, and Bosch P. 2011. The origin of black pigmentation in a sample of Mexican prehispanic human bones. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(11):2979-2988.Brown KM. 2016. Asphaltum (bitumen) production in everyday life on the California Channel Islands. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 41:74-87.Brown KM, Connan J, Poister NW, Vellanoweth RL, Zumberge J, and Engel MH. 2014. Sourcing archaeological asphaltum (bitumen) from the California Channel Islands to submarine seeps. Journal of Archaeological Science 43:66-76.Burger P, Stacey RJ, Bowden SA, Hacke M, and Parnell J. 2016. Identification, Geochemical Characterisation and Significance of Bitumen among the Grave Goods of the 7th Century Mound 1 Ship-Burial at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk, UK). PLoS ONE 11(12):e0166276.Cà ¢rciumaru M, Ion R-M, Nitu E-C, and Stefanescu R. 2012. New evidence of adhesive as hafting material on Middle and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts from Gura Cheii-Rà ¢snov Cave (Romania ). Journal of Archaeological Science 39(7):1942-1950. Clark KA, Ikram S, and Evershed RP. 2016. The significance of petroleum bitumen in ancient Egyptian mummies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 374(2079).El Diasty WS, Mostafa AR, El Beialy SY, El Adl HA, and Edwards KJ. 2015. Organic geochemical characteristics of the Upper Cretaceous–Early Paleogene source rock and correlation with some Egyptian mummy bitumen and oil from the southern Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 8(11):9193-9204.Fauvelle M, Smith EM, Brown SH, and Des Lauriers MR. 2012. Asphaltum hafting and projectile point durability: an experimental comparison of three hafting methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(8):2802-2809.Jasim S, and Yousif E. 2014. Dibba: an ancient port on the Gulf of Oman in the early Roman era. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 25(1):50-79.Kostyukevich Y, Solovyov S, Kononikhin A, Popov I, and Nikolaev E. 2016. The investigation of the bitumen from anc ient Greek amphora using FT ICR MS, H/D exchange and novel spectrum reduction approach. Journal of Mass Spectrometry 51(6):430-436. Schwartz M, and Hollander D. 2016. The Uruk expansion as dynamic process: A reconstruction of Middle to Late Uruk exchange patterns from bulk stable isotope analyses of bitumen artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 7:884-899.Van de Velde T, De Vrieze M, Surmont P, Bodà © S, and Drechsler P. 2015. A geochemical study on the bitumen from Dosariyah (Saudi-Arabia): tracking Neolithic-period bitumen in the Persian Gulf. Journal of Archaeological Science 57:248-256.Wess JA, Olsen LD, and Haring Sweeney M. 2004. Asphalt (Bitumen). Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 59. Geneva: World Health Organization.
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