Indian Literature Essay

Indian Literature, writings in the languages and literary traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The subcontinent consists of three countries: India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The political division of the area into three nations took place in the 20th century; before that, the entire region was generally referred to as India. For centuries Indian society has been characterized by diversity—the people of modern India speak 18 major languages and many other minor languages and dialects; Urdu is the principal language of Pakistan, and Urdu and Bengali are used in Bangladesh. The people of the subcontinent also practice all the world’s major religions. Throughout its history, India has absorbed and transformed the cultures of the peoples who have moved through the region. As a result, the Indian literary tradition is one of the world’s oldest and richest. Religion has long exercised a strong influence on Indian writing. The major religions of the area have been Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Islam. Throughout the history of Indian literature, certain religious doctrines have formed common threads. One such doctrine is karma—the chain of good and bad actions and their inevitable consequences, which result in the repeated birth and death of the soul. The mythology of the dominant Hindu religion portrays the deities Vishnu, Shiva, the Goddess (Devi), and others. This mythology has influenced Indian texts, from ancient epics in the Sanskrit language to medieval poems in the various languages of different regions to modern works in English. The Vedas, which are Hindu sacred texts, are the earliest examples of Indian literature. The Vedas were composed between about 1500 bc and 1000 bc in Old Sanskrit, also called Vedic Sanskrit. This language belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan languages dominated northern India in ancient times, and Sanskrit became the major language of Indian religious and philosophical writing and classical literature. It also served as a common language with which scholars from different regions could communicate. No longer spoken widely, it is maintained as a literary language in modern India, meaning that people still use it for written works. The emergence of the popular religions Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century bc gave rise to literature in Pali and in the several dialects of Sanskrit known as Prakrit (meaning â€Å"natural language†). Meanwhile, Tamil, a Dravidian language, emerged as the most important language in the south. A recorded literature in Tamil dates from the 1st century ad. Rich literary traditions have emerged in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, which are modern languages that developed from Old Tamil and its dialects. Between the 10th and 18th centuries, the medieval dialects of the earlier languages evolved into the modern languages of India. Eighteen of these languages now have official status in India, as does English. As the different tongues evolved, a distinctive literature with particular styles and themes developed in each tongue. At the same time, Indian literature was influenced by the Persian language and its literature, which various Muslim conquerors brought to the Indian subcontinent. Muslims also introduced Islam to India, and Islamic philosophy and traditions affected Indian literature. After the British became active in India in the 1700s, English language and writing had a significant impact on Indian literature. Oral traditions have always been important in Indian literature. Many storytellers present traditional Indian texts by reciting them, often with improvisation. Others use song, dance, or drama to tell tales. In both its oral and written forms, Indian literature has produced great works that have influenced national and regional literary traditions in other parts of the world.

Akamai Case Study Ecommerce

1. Why does akamai need to geographically disperse its servers to deliver its costumers' web content? Akamai allows its costumers to move their web-based products closer to their end users (local). Meaning that an Akamai website can deliver from 4 to 10 times faster as non-Akamai website, due to the 73. 000 servers around the world. 2. If you wanted to deliver software content over the Internet, would you sign up for Akamai’s service? Why or why not? Yes we would sign up for the Akamai service due to the following advantages * Reliability * Availability * Speed * Security Reporting tools with regards to problems or traffics * Scalability (the possibility of having many users and large files) 3. What advantages does an advertiser derive from using Akamai’s EdgeScape service? What kinds of products might benefit from this kind of service? The main advantage of this EdgeScape service is the tracking possibility of online shopping behaviour. This way an advertiser can pin p oint buyers based on geographic locations, and validate an end user’s location. 4. Why don’t major business firms distribute their videos using [email  protected] networks lie Bittorent?P2P means the sharing of files between users of the P2P service such as Bittorent or Bitlord. But this also means that all users are actually servers meaning that it is not easy to collect user data. Also major firms might want to use Akamai instead of P2P as it is more reliable, secure and stable. With the underlying infrastructure of the Internet major companies will most likely not benefit from p2p services. Due to the slow loading of websites companies will most likely chose for a web-streamed based content. These content are often saved on a local server and are most likely quicker distributed to their costumers. . Do you think Internet users should be charged based on the amount of bandwidth they consumer, or tiered plan where users would pay in rough proportion to their usage? No, we believe that the Internet must remain free without people paying for the use of bandwidth. When you are charging people for the use of bandwidth then many people will avoid certain websites that use up allot of bandwidth such as video streaming which uses up allot of bandwidth. It might even result in people avoiding the high use of the internet due to the costs, which is bad news for many online businesses.

Michael Levin’s the Case for Torture (Review)

Michael Levin’s â€Å"The Case for Torture† argues that there are various reasons for allowing torture to exist in the United States of America. Levin would love to see society change its negative views on torture so that, under certain circumstances, torture would be permissible. The article starts off with a very brief description of how he believes society views the subject of torture as a negative thing. He leads on to oppose that way of thinking and provides three cases in which he believes torture must be administered with various reasons attempting to support his thoughts. The hypothetical cases Levin uses range from very extreme situations, to a situation where we may sometimes see on the news. Levin makes it clear to the audience that he does not agree with torture as a punishment and focuses on exactly what it should be used for. He also stresses that there is an important difference between terrorists and victims and he believes it would stop the talk of â€Å"terrorist rights†. Levin also writes on his belief that most terrorist do their crimes for publicity and because of that, the terrorist shall be fairly easy to identify and later be tortured. He closes the article by saying torture would cause little danger to western democracies and predicting what he believes will happen in the future. After many through readings of Michael Levin’s article, I feel the attitude he carries along thorough the article presents him as an aggressively self assured person. Most of the reasoning he gives is heavily based on pathetic appeals. The force of pathos he puts into the reader is very compelling but does not fulfill the argument as well as it should because of the lack of good logic and reasoning. Levin uses three main points to convince readers why torture should be used. The first major point includes three hypothetical cases as big reason to why it‘s important. His second point explains the reason for the need of torture. Finally he states who gets to receive the torturing and briefly describes what the outcome may be. Levin's biggest point is generated from the three hypothetical cases he provides the reader with. In my opinion, they are clearly work more as an emotional example and not a sound reason. The 1st case is one in which an atomic bomb is planted on Manhattan Island and will blow at noon. The suspect demands money and release of his friends from jail. He is caught at 10 A. M. and the man won’t disclose any information on the bomb. â€Å"What do you do† (201)? The 2nd case speaks of a bomb on a jumbo jet. The suspect's demands cannot be met. Won’t we do anything to the extortionist to the save the passengers (201)? The 3rd hypothetical case is provided with results from a four person poll. The case is one in which a newborn baby is kidnapped from a hospital. Would you allow the torturing of the kidnapper in order to get him back? I feel that all three hypothetical situations have something about them that do not make me feel convinced. The first situation in which the bomb is planted Manhattan Island seems too unrealistic due to reasons that you don't always hear of this kind of stuff on the news and also that the bomber is captured. Even if a person demands money and release of his friends from jail, Levin does not explain how somebody would go about finding this person wherever he is hiding? Levin also has a very weak spot in explaining the situation because when he speaks of the bomber, he says â€Å"Preferring death to failure – Won’t disclose where the bomb is. †(201). Saying to readers he prefers death to failure would logically mean that, even if tortured, the man is still not going to disclose the information because he would rather die than failing his mission in receiving his needs. The second situation's weakness' comes from a lack of critical information and once again the rareness of the situation. The situation involves a Jumbo Jet in which a bomb has been planted which can be defused ONLY by the bomber which is in police custody. Levin says â€Å"Surely we can, we must, do anything to the extortionist to save the passengers† (201). Once again, what exactly is torture going to do in this situation if the bomb is in the air on the plane? How exactly is the bomb going to be defused? I feel that this situation could have made much better of an argument if he would have taken the time to clear up exactly how the bomb was going to get defused. Later in the paragraph Levin adds in, â€Å"If you caught the terrorist, could you sleep nights knowing that millions died because you couldn't bring yourself to apply the electrodes? â€Å"(201). It is clearly an emotionally loaded sentence. He purposely italicizes the word â€Å"you† because he wants you to sink into that thought and make you feel really bad about the situation. The third hypothetical case, which I consider weakest, is explained with results of an informal poll based on the situation. In the poll, four mothers are asked if they would approve the torturing of the kidnapper that kidnaps their child if that were necessary to get them back. All four mothers said they would approve of it. I feel this argument does not give a great example of what makes torture acceptable. It is more of an example to show what someone would do for their loved ones. Its weakness is clearly seen in the number of participants in the poll that he is using and in the biased opinion they most likely already had. The best part of Levin’s reasoning is expressed when he speaks of why exactly he believes torture should be accepted and not viewed upon as something horrible. In the article, Levin says â€Å"I am advocating torture as an acceptable measure for preventing future evils. †(201). He does a good job of making it clear exactly what he means. In doing so, he briefly explains an argument he believes people against the death penalty use. The argument is that by killing the murderer, you are not bringing back the victim that was killed. Levin explains that instead of killing after a murder has occurred, he advocates that torturing someone stops the innocent from being dispatched. Levin makes it clear that torture should ONLY be used for the saving of lives. This leads to what he believes is the most powerful argument against torture. People would insist that such practices disregard the rights of the individual. Levin first counter-argument is presented when he says â€Å"Well, if the individual is all that important, and he is, it is correspondingly important to protect the rights of individuals threatened by terrorist. â€Å"(201). It seemed like a very sound argument to me because of the way he used anti-torture line to support his pro-torture argument. Levin later says â€Å"Unlike his victims, he (the terrorist) volunteered the risks of his deed. By threatening to kill for profit or idealism, he renounces civilized standards, and he can have no complaint if civilization tries to thwart him by whatever means necessary. (202). He thinks if a person decides to oppose civilized standards, he should not expect to be treated with the same rights as the people who do follow civilized standards. Although it sounds reasonable, he does make an assumption here. Levin assumes that the suspect KNOWS they are going against civilized standards. Does this mean that a sociopath that cannot distinguis h between civilized standards would not be tortured? I feel a bit more of clarification could help this argument. Levin addresses the issue of torturing the wrong person. He starts off by making an assumption terrorist proclaim themselves and perform for television and public recognition. Levin says â€Å"After all, you can’t very well intimidate a government into releasing your freedom fighters unless you announce that it is your group that has seized its embassy. †(202). It is just another hypothetical situation to bend things his way without providing documented evidence of a real life situation where the terrorist actually identified themselves. It is as though in his eyes, he thinks finding the right perpetrator is a very simple task. Finally, in the last paragraph he says â€Å"There will be little danger that the western democracies will lose their way if they choose to inflict pain as a way of preserving order. I noticed that his claim seems a bit modified in the last paragraph. Levin starts the article speaking of torture ONLY for the saving of innocent lives, but now, he speaks of torture for preserving order. Does this broaden up the whole claim? He also predicts that someday soon many lives will be threatened and torture will be the only way to save them. This prediction is supported by no evidence what so ever and is clearly only to provide fear to the person reading it. The discussion of key terms was decent in this article. When he speaks of torture the closest description I found that define torture to Levin is: â€Å"Subjecting someone to the most excruciating pain. † This may seem like a great description of what we see as torture but the example of torture he mentions is â€Å"having the electrodes applied†. I really wasn’t sure what he was referring to until I looked it up online and read that electrodes are what kill you in the electric chair. I believe he did not provide any better example of this because it can very well make a reader oppose of the torturing right away if he speaks of a more gruesome example. Levin also uses the word moral cowardice to describe allowing the death of millions of innocent lives. He does a good job by explaining that it means the unwillingness of dirtying ones hands. Regarding tone and ethos, the author starts off taking a big risk by introducing the topic of torture as something societies reject outright, then saying he opposes the beliefs of society on that topic. Not only does he just oppose it, he says it is unwise. I think by doing that, he may give the reader a sense that he thinks only his beliefs are wise and that he does not respect any other ideas. Throughout the article, Levin continues to carry the attitude of a know it all. Levin says â€Å"Opponents of the death penalty, for example are forever insisting that executing a murderer will not bring back his victim. â€Å"(201). In case you didn't notice, he says â€Å"forever insisting†. This presents an assumption in a way to make it seem like fact that death penalty opponents ALWAYS insist executing will not bring back his victim. Not only does his statement risk offending the death penalty opponents, it can also continue to promote his know it all attitude which can surely annoy other people too. Another occasion of his overly aggressive attitude is when he says â€Å"Once you concede that torture is justified in extreme cases, you have admitted that the decision to use torture is a matter of balancing innocent lives against the means needed to save them. â€Å"(201). Whether or not it makes sense, he is clearly making an assumption that we admit to something by agreeing on another thing. The way he worded that may seem a bit too aggressive for a general audience. On the other hand, some people can also see that attitude as a good thing because they feel the person they are listening to actually knows what they are talking about. Even though he carries the cocky attitude through most of the article, when it comes to speaking of his hypothetical cases he tries to change his tone to more of an emotional one that is more likely to affect the reader. This however is a good thing, because it can make the reader a bit more vulnerable to falling into his emotional example. Ultimately then â€Å"The Case for Torture† is very mixed in effectiveness. The hypothetical cases sound a bit too rare and unlikely to appen but it can cause the audience to think it out. Only minor elements of his reasoning are sound and effective. But his reasoning needs a bit more of support from some other place and his hypothetical situations can certainly use some actually documentation of the occurrences he speaks of. I do not believe this essay does the total job in changing people's minds from anti-torture to pro-torture. But I do think that the people who were already anti-torture surely hate this guy a bit more especially because of the attitude. I think this essay leaves a large amount of places for it to be attacked by a person who does not believe in torture.

A nuclear family unit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A nuclear family unit - Essay Example One can describe the ages of this family unit as chronological in order. First, the father is 42 years, works as a carpenter, and appears healthy and strong. The mother is 36 years old, a truck driver, and smokes one packet of cigarettes per day. The girl is 12 years old, attends school as required, and no petty issues were noted except the fact that she appears a bit overweight for a girl of such age but no obesity as such to be reported. The boy is six years old and plays well, meaning he is physically fit. It would be accurate to describe this family’s social group as middle working class particularly with the ability to afford their children’s education, medical insurance, and a four bed-roomed house. Although the father did reach 11th grade, he did not manage to graduate while the mother has knowledge in attending heavy machinery. Thus, the educational background of this family is obsolete and this could be the reason they are seeking to have their children study h ard in order to break that chain of low levels of education (Doane & Varcoe, 2005). Generally, the family has a great deal of strengths given that the father was treated for alcoholism and resolved to become a responsible husband and a father while the mother was treated for a health issue that could affect her delivery system. Additionally, both parents are regular cigarette smokers but the children are doing great which leads to the conclusion that the whole family is physically fit (Doane & Varcoe, 2005). ... The setting of this home is intact and has the relevant requirements of such kind of a family. The house has four bedrooms and two bathrooms. It is also very clean and neat signifying that it is always tidy. Q2 As of this point, the family looks prepared both psychologically and physically since they have made tremendous progress regarding the incoming baby. Pertinently, the mother is looking forward to stop working when she is one month due to the speculated date of the actual birth. The father is working tirelessly and has an insurance cover against any health risks that may befall the family. Generally, the whole family is considering the presence of the unborn child as a blessing rather than a burden a factor that shows that it is ready for another member of the family (Doane & Varcoe, 2005). With comparison to the textbook, a fully prepared family both physically and psychologically is that which has almost all the necessary things that a pregnant woman needs as well as the esse ntial items that a born child requires. What was the topic that  stood  out Nutritional status Nutritional status This family’s nutrition status is incredible following the fact that they keep a healthy diet. Their breakfast composes of peanut toast with yoghurt and fruits as snack. They take nutritious lunch full of proteins and supper involves red meat, vegetables, and ice cream as snack. Hence, this family’s nutrition status stands out as the best topic of discussion during the interview. Bonding behaviors First, the relationship between the mother and father is healthy. Second, the children go to the same school and play together pointing out that they relate to each other well. Therefore, the research concluded that the overall family relationship is in the best

Sustainable Urban Development at the City level Essay

Sustainable Urban Development at the City level - Essay Example In order to achieve this success, Bristol the city of UK is one of the most popular cities regarding the urban sustainable development. It is covering the aspects like promoting local food, promoting local and implementable agricultural programs, sustainable infrastructure designs, proper allocation of the resources, helping the organizations to cut down the carbon emissions, promoting the local transport through walking and use of buses instead of over burdened cars and promoting sustainable development phenomena through implementing education. ... It is very important to get to know that what the sustainable development is. Sustainable development is defined as â€Å"Meeting the demands of present generation without comprising on the demands of future generation to come, it is a proper use of all the resources within the society that are not deficient in terms of future usage†. It is to sustain the needs of upcoming generations. The phenomenon of sustainable development is being applied worldwide as the societies get to know of its utmost importance. But it is a matter of long debate that the implementation of the theoretical sustainable development is possible in the real sense or not? The reason is mainly because there are certain other factors that goes side by side with the sustainable development, that if sufficient could benefit the society and of not, could be a loss. URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:- The population of the world is probable to be increased to 9 billion till 2050. As a matter of concern, the main is sue throughout the world is the rapid growth in urbanization of the countries and most of the populations heading towards the urban areas, this could increase many problems within the society if the idea of sustainable development cannot be met within the provide times. The cities around the world due to their distribution of goods and services, technologies, opportunities have gained a lot of attention in the people’s eye from near and far. The issues such as solid waste, over population, water and sanitation, unplanned city, infrastructure, education, town and city planning, communication and natural resource management are the indicators of the urban sustainable development. Therefore, it is very important to develop a holistic

Economic Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economic Report - Essay Example Presidents’ economic performance based on the real Gross Domestic Products The two presidential terms, the first term of president Barrack Obama and the last term of President George W. Bush were characterized by the worst economic performance since World War II. The real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew by only 4% during the second term of President George W. Bush’s tenure, which was the weakest since World War II. During the first term of Obama’s tenure, the real GDP grew by 5.9%, the second weakest since World War II. According to NBER (National Bureau of economic research), the most recent recession began in 2007 and ended in 2009. NBER states that economic recession starts when growth is at the peak, and then the nation begins to experience slow economic activity. A recession comes to an end and economic expansion begins after the economic activities hit the economic trough and start to grow again. It can be concluded that the most recent economic growth wa s lowest during the last term of George W. Bush and started to peak during Barrack Obama’s first term. ... W. Bush, and through superb economic policies, he managed to transform it into a surplus of 2.4% of the GDP in 2000. In addition, federal spending dropped from 22% of GDP in 1992 to 18.4% in 2000. It can be concluded that during Clinton’s era, the economy experienced the highest growth of GDP at 14% due to sound economic policies, low interest rates, and reduced spending that resulted in a relatively low deficient rate. However, some critics state that Bill Clinton’s economic policies encouraged subprime lending, housing bubble, and economic boom, which were instrumental in starting the great recession (Tanzi 58). George H. W. Bush can be remembered for spurring the economy that buoyed Clinton’s economic prosperity. He inherited from Reagan an economy that had started to enter the recession phase after experiencing a considerable economic prosperity. During his era, the GDP grew by 8.8%, which was a bit higher than those posted by Barrack Obama and George W. Bush . Although his presidency was marked by excessive spending on wars, such as the Gulf War, he managed to contain inflation and provided a good economic pathway for the prosperity of the economy during Bill Clinton’s era (Grabowski, Self, and Shields 71). Presidents’ economic performance based on civilian unemployment rate The United States of America has experienced eleven recessions since 1948. The federal and state governments have applied several measures to combat recession and minimize civilian unemployment through tax cuts and stimulus spending. In the early 1980s, the economy endured a recession, and the rate of unemployment was at double digits. The main reason was that the federal government was trying to minimize the inflation that was affecting

Hobbes and Morality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hobbes and Morality - Essay Example 13, p. 84). The conditions that Hobbes outlined and feared in the state of nature had profound implications for his conceptualization of morality and what defined an individual as an equal to his or her fellow human being both in terms of morality and in rational self-interest. The overriding principle in the state of nature is that man is inherently and perpetually condemned to a fate where his life is subject to a violent and brutish death or injury at the hands of others. Hobbes first defined man as being relatively equal in faculties to one another, in physical and mental abilities, and when there are such advantages of one holds over another in either physical strength or intellectual prowess, the threat of harm is always prevalent, so that any such advantages or disadvantages are not considerable enough to negate such threats of harm. Even if there is a more skilled warrior in the area, he or she is still subject to a violent death insomuch that others could band together to nullify such a threat (Leviathan, ch. 13, p. 82). It is because of this equal threat is how Hobbes is then able to define what his terms of morality are in the state of nature. With an individual existing in the state of nature that is conditionally the state of war with every man against every man, and life al... An individual has the moral authority to kill, maim or otherwise thwart another individual should they be deemed a threat to one's life and being. This also had prolific implications for actions themselves. One's actions to preserve their own well being are either amoral, or completely void of being judged right or wrong, or that such actions are morally defensible because the ultimate value and aim is that one's life ought to be defended at all costs and through any and all means disposable. Hobbes directly wrote, "to this war of every man against every man...is also consequent that nothing can be unjust," (Leviathan, ch. 13, 85). The social contract and civil government Hobbes declared removed man from the state of nature and perpetual warfare into a civil society where the governing authority is charged with the responsibility of the preservation of domestic peace. In exchange for this protection of life, the subjects in this civil society must sacrifice their absolute freedom as they held in the state of nature in order to ensure that the war of every man against every man no longer exists. Hobbes directly argued that "a man be willing, when others are tooto lay down his rights to all things, and would be contented with so much liberty against other men as he would allow other men against himself," (Leviathan, ch. 14, p. 87). The civil society is a voluntary contract where all citizens agree to what they are to compromise in terms of absolute freedom in order to have the right of life protected under a rule of law. Individuals are also equal in this respect that they rationally enter into such a social cont ract voluntarily and willing compromise whatever natural freedoms

Project Mangement Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Mangement Paper - Essay Example The project management has been defined by many researchers such as Crawford, Pollack and England (2006), Georgieva and Allan (2008), Kwak and Anbari (2008) and Pfeffer (2010), but still there is no single concrete definition for it. However, Dr. Denis Petersen (2009) described project management as the way by which an organisation accomplishes the goal of completing its projects on time. The project is defined as a venture in which financial, human and material sources are combined together in an organised way to perform work that has a unique scope along with a particular set of specifications that have some time and cost constraints (Smyth and Morris, 2007). Malhotra, Majchrzak and Benson (2007) rightly stated that the main aim of the project is to acquire a change that is beneficial for the organisation and that it is defined and measured by setting both qualitative and quantitative objectives. According to Pinto and Slevin (1998) cited by Georgieva and Allan (2008), project mana gement can be best described as the management of a project which has the following characteristics: a beginning and an end, i.e. specific time for completion; a predetermined goal or set of goals; and a set of interrelated activities and a limited budget. In order to manage the projects well, it is important to have good project managers. The project managers are the leaders who have to ensure that everything regarding the project is properly sequenced and planned out –i.e. the issues of raw materials, human resources and finances need to be addressed beforehand. The primary duties of the project manager are building the best team for the project, co-ordinating with the team members, establishing vision and communicating it to the team members, establishing realistic goals, motivating the team members to perform effectively, and encouraging people to stretch while communicating appropriately with each other (Peterson, 2009). Nine Key Skills and Managerial Elements As regards the duration of A3 HindHead project, it can be said that the project management team has considered all the factors of the project: time, cost and quality. Although the project had been in pipeline since 1970s, the right time to control the traffic on the bridge came in 2011. The most important elements considered in the project management of the aforementioned situation are the project’s scope, time, cost, workforce and the procurement for the project. The foremost aspect that needs to be considered is the scope of the project. The project manager needs to first identify the aims, goals and objectives of the clients. It is important to have clarity about the vision of the project; once the vision is clear, the direction will be well-set and goals will be achieved within the agreed time period. Along with the scope of the project, it is important to identify the cost and time limitations, i.e. when the project should be completed, how the project’s progress will be me asured and what will be done to ensure that the obstacles are tackled. Likewise, the budget designing is important so that the project manager has ample ideas about the financial constraints the client faces. Simultaneously, the project manager has to ensure that the workforce is well-motivated and has a clear understanding about the goals and objectives to be attained. For the project manager, it is important to motivate the workforce, especially the workers, so that they perform all the

About new trends in media planning- the growing importance of digital Article

About new trends in media planning- the growing importance of digital - Article Example For instance, before, the company could only focus on a particular market segment. This means that the advert was supposed to be big and broad in order to evoke a particular amount of purchasing power. Therefore, the venture was expensive. However, with digital advertising, the organization is able to appeal to a huge target market and at a low price. The platforms used in digital advertising allow the organization to have real-time interaction with their customers thus, enhancing their services to suit their clients’ needs (Schultz n.pg). General Mills targeting strategies used with Cheerios was to discuss it nutritional value with people from different demographics. This strategy can also be applied to Yoplait. Yoplait is a yogurt brand could be marketed by discussing its different flavors and nutrition value to the target markets. It contains calcium which is good for strong bones and it has no artificial additives (Schultz n.pg). General Mills is using â€Å"Tablespoon† to post amazing brand content that are appealing to millennials. Millennials are people that are more interested in trending brands and that are how the company is capturing them. By advertising new, trending and attractive â€Å"Tablespoon† is able to add value to the brand by creating an engagement with possible consumers (Schultz

Smart phones Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Smart phones - Research Paper Example Also, the process was slow and, in particular, the previous management of information systems where most organizations had fewer computers used to retrieve and store information. In addition, the process of sharing information prior to the advent of smartphones was challenging because workers had to take notes from their seniors who sometimes are fast or not audible. However, smartphones bring flexibility and efficiency at the workplace that can help the organization to improve the speed of sharing information and ensuring projects are completed on time (Baltzan, Detlor, & Welsh, 2012). This paper examines how smartphones help to enhance the management of information systems. The widespread use of smartphones in the office environment as a medium for accessing, sharing and using information is influenced by the need to hasten the communication of vital information between employees in an organization. In a globalized business environment, employees require access to more resources, and this includes vital information that can help them to improve their efficiency and overall performance of the organization. Smartphones are not only portable but also has vital features that can improve the sharing of information between employees in the workplace environment. Such key feature include, for example, voice calling, text, emailing and video conference that has become an important platform where the top management in different geographical location can relay important information to junior staff in other regions across the world. For example, the top management can utilize smartphones for video conferencing since they can communicate important information to w orkers who are million miles away in real time (Carayannis & Clark, 2011). Further, smartphones also have several software applications that are relevant for sharing vital informational

Healthy Cell Phone Essay Example for Free

Healthy Cell Phone Essay Teenagers and The Over Use of Cell Phones The use of cell phones should be banned for teenagers. Similar to the legal age of purchasing alcohol and tobacco, the same law should be enforced when it comes to the use of cell phones among teenagers. Although the thought of this may sound insane to most adolescence, it maybe the solution to limiting and promoting healthy cell phone use amongst todays youth. The following solution would also be in their best interest without them even realizing it. The over use of cell phones by teenagers will have a negative effect on their academic, social, and mental development. Teenagers who use their cellphones very often will have their academic progress negatively affected due to being distracted. It is not a rare occurrence for teenagers to have their phones with them while they are in class, but that is mainly because many of them do not realize the impact it is having on their grades. Researchers, Christian M. End, Shaye Worthman, Mary Bridget Matthews, and Katharina Wetterau at Xavier University did a study about the impact of cell phone rings on academic performance. After completing the study they said, Findings indicated that cell phone rings during a video presentation impaired academic performance. Specifically, participants in the ringing condition performed worse on disrupted test items and were less likely to have recorded pertinent test information (End, Worthman, Matthews, Wetterau, 2010, p. 55-57). The study shows that Just the ringer on a cell phone alone can have an impact on how a student takes notes. However, not everyone thinks that cell phones are a bad idea. Authors Kevin Thomas and Blanche Obannon wrote an article titled Cell Phones In The Classroom: Preservice Teachers Perceptions, which talks about cell phone use in the class room and how it would be beneficial to students. Mentioning that by 201 5 two-thirds of all suggest that this can be a positive thing with the use of tools provided by cell phones for content creation, student centered learning, authentic learning, differentiation of instruction, assessment, and reflection (Thomas ; Obannon, 2013). Given that cell phones can be used as a tool to better educate; it still would not be a good idea because studies prove that a ringer alone can distract a student. Also that text messages and social media cites such a Facebook and Twitter will also be a distraction away from school work. If students were openly able to utilize their cell hones while in class this would cause a distraction and decrease in their grades. A teenager who pays more attention to their phone while in school can cause them to not be academically successful. When a teenager depends solely on communicating through their cell phone it will cause them to have a difficult time with face-to-face interactions. Many teens would prefer to send a text message or make a phone call to their friend in the next room rather than Just walking over and talking to them. Not only does this encourage laziness but it also affects their social skills. An Article in the Washington Post by Masuma Ahuja called Teens are spending more time consuming social media, on mobile devices, which talks about teens spending a long amount of time on social media and how it effects their social skills. Ahuja says, Teens spend so much time interacting with each other on social networks and phones that they are growing less comfortable with in-person interactions and not developing essential social skills (Ahuja, 2013). It is clear that teenagers who prefer talking on a cell phone, sending a Facebook message or sending a text message are more likely to have trouble in a social setting. Cell phones have also made a great impact with the way families interact with one another. It causes teenagers to subconsciously disrespect their parents by using their cellphones while at the dinner table or picking up a phone call while being spoken to by their parents. An article called The Cell Phone as an Agent of Social Change written by Abu Sadat Nurulla from the University of Alberta talks about the effect that cellphones have on the way youth interact with family and their peers. Nurulla says that cell phones cannot solve ongoing child and parent communication issues, such as quality and flow of communication (Nurulla, p. 1). Although a teenager having a cell phone may help with keeping in touch with their parents for emergencies, but it does not otherwise benefit the relationship due. Teenagers seem to not be aware of the effect of being overly indulged with communicating on cell phones; it can seriously hinder their ability to socialize because they are use to sitting behind a phone. Teenagers over dependence and use of their cell phone can lead to depression. Something as minor as falling asleep with their phone beside them can cause lack of sleep due to the phone going off in the middle of the night, which will cause lack of leep and could lead to the teenager having a bad day. An article called How Mobile Phones Affect Sleep in the Huffington Post talks about how mobile phones affect a good nights sleep, while making reference to a study funded by a major mobile phone maker. It says, People exposed to major radiation took longer to fall asleep and spent less time in deep sleep (Huffington Post, 2013). So it is clear that cell phones can be linked to teens not sleeping well at night. Also in the Medical Post an about a study done to link the over use of cell phones by teen to depression. The tudy showed that compared to teens in the lower scoring group than the group of adolescence that used their phones more often had significantly higher scores in the depression inventory scale and interpersonal anxiety scale, as well as scoring low on the self-esteem scale (Hodges, 2006). These results reflect that teenagers are very likely to suffer from depression if they continue to spend too much time in their cell phones. Depression and lack of sleep will lead to severe mental issues if not sustained at an early stage. Youth today are overly dependent on cell phones. So dependent that many of hem seem to be out of touch with reality. Due to the mental, social, and academic effects of cell phones, teenagers are being sent down the wrong path. These three aspects are very important to human development as a whole. They are more critical at the adolescent stage, where teenagers should be attempting to reach their full potential without the distraction of cell phones. A teenager should be able to sleep well in order to go to school, be attentive, and be able to socialize with their peers and teachers without the interruption of receiving a text message or a phone call.

ECH125 T5CulturalInstructionalStrategies Essay Example for Free

ECH125 T5CulturalInstructionalStrategies Essay Perdew Maria SEVEN-YEAR-OLD MARIA IS AN OUTGOING, HAPPY SECOND-GRADER WITH STRONG LITERACY SKILLS; IN FACT, SHE IS BILINGUAL, SPANISH/ENGLISH. HER FAVORITE PART OF SCHOOL IS READING AND WRITING STORIES. SHE ALSO ENJOYS MATH. SHE IS VERY ACTIVE AND ENJOYS RECESS AND CREATING DANCE STEPS IN PE. SHE IS SENSITIVE AND CAN GET HER FEELINGS HURT EASILY. CULTURAL (ANTI-BIAS) AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: ?CULTURAL USE THE READING AND WRITING LOVE AND HAVE READING AND WRITING ASSIGNMENTS/ACTIVITIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH. ?INSTRUCTIONAL INTRODUCE MORE COMPLEX READING LEVELS, WORK ONE ON ONE WITH HER TO BEGIN WRITING STORY SUMMARIES AND IDENTIFYING THE MAIN IDEA. RESULTS OF MENTOR TEACHER DISCUSSIONS: WE DISCUSSED THE IMPORTANCE OR REALLY HORNING IN ON STUDENT’S STRENGTHS TO PUSH HER TO ENSURE THE STUDENT IS LEARNING SOMETHING NEW. Ashley SIX-YEAR-OLD ASHLEY IS THE YOUNGEST OF FIVE CHILDREN. SHE IS VERY SHY AND CLINGS TO HER OLDER SISTER EACH DAY WHEN SHE BRINGS HER INTO THE FIRST GRADE CLASSROOM. ASHLEY IS CURIOUS; HER FAVORITE PART OF SCHOOL IS DOING SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS. SHE READS AT A PRIMER LEVEL, BUT ENJOYS HAVING PEOPLE READ TO HER. CULTURAL (ANTI-BIAS) AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: ?CULTURAL INTRODUCE STRATEGIES FOR HER TO FOCUS IN ON HER CURIOSITY AND BLOSSOM THROUGH HER LOVE FOR SCIENCE. ?INSTRUCTIONAL TURN FOCUS TO SIGHT WORDS AT HER LEVEL AND START WORKING ON GETTING HER INTO A TITLE READING GROUP SO SHE CAN GET THE EXTRA WORK IN READING. RESULTS OF MENTOR TEACHER DISCUSSIONS: WE TALKED ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFY WHEN A CHILD NEEDS EXTRA WORK SUCH AND A TITLE READING GROUP AND ABOUT HOW EVEN THOUGH THEY ARE IN A OUTSIDE READING GROUP THEY STILL NEED TO BE INVOLVED IN THE CLASSROOM READINGS ASÂ  WELL. Xavier XAVIER IS A KINDERGARTENER WHO REALLY ENJOYS SPORTS, PARTICULARLY BASEBALL. HE HAS LOW LITERACY SKILLS. HE IS VERY SOCIAL AND ENJOYS INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN DURING RECESS, CLASS ACTIVITIES, AND AT THE COMPUTER. HE IS A HANDS-ON LEARNER, CONFIDENT, AND A RISK-TAKER. CULTURAL (ANTI-BIAS) AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: ?CULTURAL USE HIS INTERESTS IN SPORTS AND COMPUTERS TO HELP KEEP HIM INTERESTED IN READING. ?INSTRUCTIONAL BUILD ON HIS CONFIDENCE AND HAVE HIM LEAD OTHERS STUDENTS WHEN Â © 2014. GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Impact Of The Mega Sport Event On Tourism Tourism Essay

Impact Of The Mega Sport Event On Tourism Tourism Essay There are only two mega sport events namely the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics based on the scale of media interest. It means mega-sport event has unique natures such as outstanding reputation, adequate attention and worldwide scope already. A well-managed mega-sport event such as FIFA World Cup will attracts millions of visitors to a place. The tourism related to mega-sport event can be classified as sport event tourism that Foo L. M (2000) defined sport events tourism as the main purpose of the travel is to take part in an organized sporting activity, either as a spectator, participant or official. For example, the diverse preparations in Sydney for the 2000 Games not only cater for the 11,116 athletes, but also take into consideration the potential tourism inflow from Olympic spectators (which could number in the millions), athletes families, and estimated 15,000 media personnel (Groote, 2005). During the event holding, tourists spend money in related tourism businesses like restaurant, shop and hotel, and they may also visit surrounding tourist destinations and attractions. Obviously, tourism obtains benefits directly and indirectly from mega-sport event; while these benefits are various and long-term. In case of 2000 Sydney Olympics (Australian Tourist Commision, 2001): Visitors to Australia: 406,500 international visitors in September 2000, 15% higher than September 1999 (Australian Bureau of Statistics preliminary data). Worldwide Olympic TV audience: 3.7 billion in 220 countries (IOC) Worldwide Olympic Internet audience: 20 million (IOC) Brand Australia has been advanced by ten years, meaning what the world now knows about Australia, it wouldnt have known until 2010 had Sydney not hosted the Games (ATC). The ATCs media relations program generated an addition A$3.8 billion in publicity for Australia between 1997 and 2000 (ATC) The ATCs partnerships with major Olympic sponsors, such as Visa, McDonalds, Kodak and Coca-Cola generated in additional A$300 million in additional advertising exposure for Australia (ATC). In late 1999, the ATC launched the Australia 2000 fun and games campaign to encourage visitation to Australia in 2000. This was aimed at insuring against avoidance, as had been the experience of other major event host cities and countries. In 2000, visitor arrivals to Australia increased by 10.9% to almost five million according to preliminary Australian Bureau of Statistics figures (ABS). In excess of 100 business events, generating millions of additional export dollars for Australia can be directly attributed to the ATCs New Century. New World, Australia 2001 campaign aimed at capturing business tourism for Australia off the back of the Games. (ATC) etc. Furthermore, Hudson S. (2003) summarized relevant benefits for the host as follows: Major sport events can be catalysts for new facilities and new or improved infrastructure When sport facilities are built, they become permanent event venues Major sport events can be catalysts for attracting training sessions and other types of events, such as meetings and exhibitions There is potential for various sport events year round Sport events can reflect and enhance culture and local traditions, helping to create a unique and attractive sense of place Media coverage and its impact on developing a sport destination image can be more important than actual visitor spending Sport events can assist in destination branding by providing powerful, active lifestyle images and making cultural themes come alive However, hosting a major sports event also has high risks that mainly affect the sustainability of the tourism. For example the Olympic Games of 1976 in Montreal, it was a financial disaster for the city that almost bankrupt (Newton, 2012) and afterwards they were still faced with the financial debts until 2006 (CBC News, 2006). 2.2 Marketing in tourism 2.2.1 Mega-sport event marketing Funk D. C (2008) believed that effective marketing activities are able to shape the image of the city and stimulate the economy for the host; to reach specific target markets and position the destination to non-residents for the tourism marketers; to build community identification and create jobs for governments; to increase brand awareness, launch new products and services, and open new markets for sponsors. In terms of mega-sport event which is in essence experiential, interactive, targeted, and relational; these features are highly relevant and desirable given the modern marketing environment (Crowther, 2011) which can be explained as events create a social setting for attendees and help raise attendees involvement level; therefore, attendees are apt to be more receptive to marketing messages and images associated with the event than they are to those presented via other methods (Pope Voges, 2000; Meenachan Shipley, 1999). Therefore, event marketing is defined as a tool for experiential marketing that focuses on consumer experiences, and treats emotionally and rationally driven consumption as a holistic experience (Vel Sharma, 2010) and it offers an additional advantage, in that it actively engages the consumer with the brand and its personality (Sneath, et al., 2005). 2.2.2 Motivation of sport event tourist MacInnis D. J, Moorman C. Jaworski B. J (1991) defined motivation as an internal factor that arouses and prompts goal-directed behavior. Furthermore, Schiffman L. G Kanuk L. L (2001) detailed a motivation process which includes five stages: needs, tension, drive, want and goal. (Figure 1) Need recognition Goal behavior Want pathway Drive state Tension reductionFigure 1 Sport and event consumer motivation process Source: e.g., Schiffman L. G Kanuk L. L (2001) In the first stage: need recognition, Reisinger (2009) mentioned that potential consumers recognize a need when faced with a problem, we can understand the problem as a catalyst. As mentioned above, the problem of sport event consumer is the desire to seek the experiences. Second stage is the customers are considering how to satisfy this need and at the third stage, people will consider the pathways by their preference to reduce or eliminate the unpleasant state. Want pathway can be considered as decision-making processes and finally the goal behavior which can be understand as the acquisition satisfy peoples need, reduce tension and restore balance. A well-understanding of motivation process will help the marketer to know (Horner Swarbrooke, 2007): When to attempt to influence consumers (focusing marketing activities at the time when most consumers are making decisions to buy a particular product) The choice of advertising media based on which media the majority of consumers use to gain information about tourism products The selection of appropriate distribution channels or marketing intermediaries For example, the VisitBritains strategy for 2012 London Olympic Games focused to inspire visitors to explore Britain (VisitBritain, 2010) As the figure shows, the marketing strategy of VisitBritain focuses Awareness (inspire) and Intention (explore) stages. The marketing challenges are: Inspire: (long-term develop): Address the loss of market share and maximise the value of tourism working with the nations and regions of Britain Develop new product offers to stimulate demand in partnership with the nations and regions Explore: (Britain-led): Gain market share Grow Britain brand awareness Challenge negative perceptions of welcome, value and quality 2.2.3 Marketing strategy related to tourism Foxall (1981) defined marketing strategy as being an indication of how each element of the marketing mix will be used to achieve the marketing objectives. It is simple but easily to understand. Normally, the marketing objectives in tourism of mega-sport event host should be: To maximize the economic benefits for tourism across the host city/country To enhance the image of the host as a visitor destination To deliver- and showcase a world class welcome in and after the event A widely used marketing mix is the 4 Ps that product, price, place and promotion. Product Funk (2008) summarized unique aspects of the mega-sport event product: it is an intangible product; social facilitation via sport and reliance on product extensions. Intangible means it is an experiential product and social facilitation via sport means it has great impacts as mentioned above. However, these features are natural. Therefore, exploring on extension product is the key to stimulate and meet the demands of tourist. Such as UK launched new 50p coins to commemorating the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games (BBC, 2010) and create new travel routes for tourists as an event-related tour products and etc. à ¨Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã‚ »Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ µÃ… ½Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ…  Ã‚ ¼Ã…’http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_482a6f7d010004ue.html Furthermore, as sport has the ability to directly and indirectly influences a number of aspects in a persons life (Beaton Funk, 2008), sport marketers are likely to package themselves as the forefront in the battle to improve quality of life as sport and leisure activities become central components of promoting health lifestyles, and building more integrated communities (Funk, 2008). à ¦Ã…  Ã…  Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¥Ã…  Ã… ¾Ãƒ ¥Ã… ¸Ã… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ¦Ã‹â€ Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¦-†¦Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â‚¬ ºeventà §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ £Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‹Å" ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã… ¾Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ¨Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ²Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ´Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¥Ã…  Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¦Ã…“†°Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ®Ã‚ µÃ‚ ¼Ã…’à ©Ã‚ ¦-à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‹â€ Ãƒ ¦Ã‹Å" ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã… ¸Ã… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã‚ ²Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ §Ã‚ ¥Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¦-†¡Ãƒ ¥Ã…’- ¼Ã…’à ¦Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ §Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ §Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¦Ã‚ ¾Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ©Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ… ¡Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾brandà ¦Ã… ½Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ Price Price can be understood by if it is valuable. Getz and Cheyne (1997) found that focus group participants identified important quality factors that can influence a decision to travel to an event, including reputation of the event, caliber of participants (the best in their field), international scope, and the presence of celebrities, rarity is also a factor. Obviously, mega-sport event has all these factors: outstanding reputation; national caliber; international tourism market; celebrities (NBA stars etc.) and once in four years. As mentioned above, mega-sport tourists pay for an experience which often involves sensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioural and relational values that replace functional values (Schmitt, 1999). A well-managed service system should be marketed to the audience as favourable factor. In adverse, weakness of service will lead tourist doubt to come. For example, a safety doubt emerging after the news that with one week remaining before the opening ceremony of the London Olympics, it only has 4,000 guards trained and ready which was expected to provide over 10,000 security personnel for the event (Bartnik, 2012). à ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ãƒ ¦Ã…“†°Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ¼Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¦- ¹Ãƒ ©Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ¦Ã‚ ¶Ã‹â€ Ãƒ ¦-†¦Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ¼Ã… ¸Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â€š ¬-à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ½Ãƒ ©Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ §Ã… ½Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¢Ã†â€™ Place It refers to the place where the customers can buy the product and how the product reaches out to that place. The most effective way is media such as Internet, PR and TV. Many scholars believe that media coverage of sport events will help countries to present themselves in favorable terms (Whitson Macintosh, 1996), and will assist destinations in building a positive image that helps to generate future tourist demand (Faulkner et al., 2000). à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ º-à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ´Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¨Ã…’Æ’Ã ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ´Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ½Ãƒ ©Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¥Ã…’-à §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¥Ã…“ ºÃƒ ¦Ã… ½Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à §Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ §Ã‚ »Ã…“à ¥Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‹Å"à ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¨Ã‚ ¶Ã…  Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¶Ã…  Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¼Ã…’ Social media such as Facebook, Flickr and TripAdvisor are increasingly being exploited within mega-sport event marketing campaigns. For example, Facebook has more than 300 million active users, 50% of whom log on everyday. The internet provides a worldwide platform to distribute the information. Recently emerging channel is mobile. According to VisitBritain (2010), 400m are already using the mobile internet and this will double by 2012; 87% of people are already using their mobile for media consumption at home, and 2012 London Olympic Games became the first mobile internet Games. Development of technology help marketers delivers the information more effective, however, traditional media still important such as newspaper, which are still widely used by old peoples; TV, which covers lots of computer illiterate and broadcast, which can reach the people who have no time to look such as taxi driver. Promotion Promotion is the business of communication to the customers such as what benefits the company or organization has to offer rather than exhibit the features. Hosting the mega-sport events means a valuable promotion opportunity as it can improving a destinations image and building a destinations brand for sustainable development (Getz, 1997; Hall, 1992; Jago, et al., 2010; Prentice Andersen, 2003; Ritchie, 1984) . This means that the city can show off its tourist attractions and the infrastructure that has been generated (Chalip, 2002; Owen, 2005; Whitson Horne, 2006). Awareness of the region is also positively impacted which again brings in domestic and international tourists and potential investors (Gursoy Kendall, 2006; Solberg Preuss, 2007). For example, in a study examining the effect of special events on a countrys brand building, Jun and Lee (2008) reported a positive relationship between the role of special events on the attitudes of young Korean students towards Germany, specifically, the more exposure Korean students had to special events held in Germany, the more likely they were to form positive attitudes toward Germany. These findings supported Chalip and Costas (Chalip Costa, 2005)general theory that special events can be an extension of a destination brand or can be promoted as certain features of destination brand. Political support à §Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ -à ©Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¾Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ©Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ… ¡Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¦Ã… ½Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¦Ã‹â€ Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã… ¾Ã…“à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 2.3 Destination service quality Even though marketing strategy is well managed, tourists experience of a hotel, restaurant, or casino will imparts a different sort of knowledge than simply reading or hearing about it (La Tour, et al., 2009). Destination management includes how competition in tourism increasingly involves geographical systems where suppliers of hospitality, transportation, entertainment, and cultural services collaborate to increase the attractiveness of the destination and improve its ability to acquire customers (Bieger, 1998; Bieger, 2000; Buhalis, 2000; Ritchie Crouch, 2000; Go Crompton, 2000). Event managers are often preoccupied with delivering a high quality program (Getz, 1998), which is basically what visitors come to experience, but equal attention to service quality is essential for ensuring visitor satisfaction. SA Tourism (2008) concedes to the following ten challenges for 2010: 1) poor access to channels of tourism information, 2) insufficient accommodation, and 3) compelling attractions and activities, 4) inadequate service levels and skills shortage, 5) inadequate public transport, 6) insufficient focus on tourist safety and security, 7) limited institutional capacity, 8) managing expectations, 9) demand management and 10) displacement of general tourists. In the public eyes, hosting an event is a stimulator of tourism industry to the host city. Fourie and Santana-Gallego (2011) did a research on the impact of mega-sport events on tourist arrivals and resulted at there will be 8% increase of the arrivals on average to the host. The Olympics and FIFA World Cup are more than the average. For instance, by the data from ForwardKeys (2012), bookings made by 12th May show a 13% increase in the expected number of arrivals to London during the Olympics Periods and the rest of UK also receive 4% increase. Such a rapidly inflow of tourists will bring lots of problems such as transport disasters. Atlantas 1996 Olympic Game has provided a cautionary tale of mega-sport event travel chaos: with bus drivers getting lost, athletes arriving moments before their events and overloaded trains that couldnt get residents home (Wheatley, 2011). Therefore, how to provide quality destination service to tourists experience, while an influx occurs during the mega-sport event is one of the key factors of the successful tourism operation in mega-sport tourism marketing. Gronroos (1983) described service quality construct relates the level of experienced quality to both technical and functional dimensions of serve provision (see figure 10.1): Technical quality refers to the result of the service and/or the question, what has been provided? Functional quality on the other hand, refers to the way the service has been delivered and relates to the question, how has the service been provided? 2.3.1 Technical quality Technical quality refers to the relatively quantifiable aspects of the service such as The hotel guest will get a room and a bed to sleep in, the consumer of a restaurants services will get a meal, and the train passenger will be transported from one place to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Gronroos, 1984). In terms of mega-sport event, as influx of tourists, the capability of original infrastructure is not able to meet the needs. That is why Terret (2008) mentioned cities are interested in hosting of the Olympics Games as they can accelerate infrastructure projects. For example, Olympic experience shows that a highly robust and resilient public transport system is a prerequisite to handle exceptional Olympic mega event traffic demands (Bovy, 2006). In terms of London, it struggles with constraints on the Tube, which handles 12 million trips a day during normal times and the Olympics is estimated to add three million trips on the busiest days (Kirka, 2012). Therefore, it invested  £80m in permanent transport improvements for DLR (Media centre Press release, 2008), we have seen new rail links created in East London, and improvements to existing underground and overground train services (Pettinger, 2009) and the increase of capability achieved that a train arriving in the Olympic Park area every 15 seconds (London Olympics Transport Upgrade, 2012). This improvement will shorten the time that tourist move in and out the Olympic Park and reduce the crowd risk. In other hand, a strong public transport will also encourage tourist to choose so that avoid general car traffic on the primary Olympic transport network accordingly. 2.3.2 Functional quality Local human resource support Functional quality creates a competitive edge by focusing on the more personal aspects of the service encounter such as The accessibility of a teller machine, a restaurant or a business consultant, the appearance and behavior of waiters, bank tellers, travel agency representatives, bus drivers, cabin attendants, business consultants, plumbers, how these service firm employees perform, what they say and how they say it do also have an impact on the customers view of the serviceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Gronroos, 1984) In terms of mega-sport event, a special group volunteers was critical to the successful staging of mega-event because they provided the substantial amount of unpaid additional labour that was needed and also the outstanding service that help the tourists. For example, in Beijing 2008 Olympic games, there were 70,000 volunteers (Associated Press, 2007) applied in various positions such as translation and interpretation, protocol and reception, contest organization, food and beverage, medical services, security and transportation et al (Volunteer Positions Requirements, 2008). To ensure the service quality of the volunteer, a series of training was made before volunteers officially starting their services. In terms of Beijing 2008 Olympic Game, the training includes 4 parts (Organization and Administration of Olympic Volunteering, 2008) 1. General training: basic Olympic knowledge, brief introduction to the Beijing Olympic and Paralympic Games, Chinese history and traditional culture, history and cultural life in Beijing, knowledge and skills necessary to serve the disabled, etiquette norm, medical knowledge and first-aid skills. 2. Professional training: professional knowledge and skills required in voluntary services. 3. Venue training: venue functions, knowledge concerning the sports held in the venue, internal facilities, organizational structure, rules and regulations. 4. Job training: job responsibilities, specific work, business procedures, and operating norms. These well-trained volunteers helped the foreign visitors overcome language and cultural barriers, and provide professional service so that enhance the satisfaction of tourists experience in great extent and assist Olympic Games operating smoothly. However, Bejou et al. (1996) mentioned that there are non-standardized services in which the knowledge, behavior and commitment of the service providers are crucial. Oneil et. al. (1999) believe that this experiential product (such as event) is produced and consumed simultaneously, is highly heterogeneous and very difficult to store and/or control, but basically, if expectations are met, service quality is perceived to be satisfactory; if unmet, less than satisfactory; if exceeded, more than satisfactory. In contrary, poor events may causes by such as an emphasis on quantity rather than quality, a product rather than a market orientation, poor physical conditions and lack of information, and poorly selected or inadequately trained personnel (Jackson Schneider, 1990). 2.4 Sustainable tourism development The evaluation of the sustainability impacts of any mega-sport event is a complex and difficult task and it involves far more than simply estimating its potential revenue and expenditure (Dodouras James, 2004). As hosting a mega-sport event can also constituted a unique opportunity for the diversification and enrichment of the hosts tourism product, this legacy will benefit the tourism development in the future. For example, the building of tourism infrastructure in the case of Barcelona significantly enhanced its image and credibility as an international tourist destination (Duran, 2005). Musgrave Raj (2009) summarized the three sustainable aspects that influenced by mega-sport event as Figure 1: Mega-sport Events Social Environmental Economic Positive: Induced development and construction expenditure Long-term promotional benefits Civic pride Community development Increased employment opportunities Positive: Raising awareness of environmental issues Development of waste land Long-term conservation of area Positive: Direct/indirect expenditure Increased property value due to regeneration Additional trade and business development Induced development and construction expenditure Event product extensions Negative: Future use of infrastructure not maximized Interruption of normal business Resident exodus Disruption of lifestyle Media impacts Community apathy and antagonism Increased risk of security issues Unequal distribution of wealth Negative: Site/location damage short- and long-term Waste and pollution Noise pollution Traffic disruption and congestion Increase in energy demands and other natural resources Negative: Cost of event failure to local/national economy Inflated price of products, services and amenities Unequal distribution of wealth Fig. 1. 1. The three pillar impacts of events (Musgrave Raj, 2009) Consequently, the objectives of sustainable development are: optimizing socio-cultural impacts; minimizing environmental impacts and maximizing economic impacts (Smith-Christensen, 2009). Specifically, in terms of tourism, these impacts can be operationalized in the post-event period to attain, magnify and sustain their objectives as a sustainable sport tourism legacy. And accordingly, the sustainability of strategies that originate from sport tourism development policies, which according to sustainable development principles should maintain economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental integrity (Campell, 1996; Fitzgerald Leigh, 2002). 2.4.1 Social impact By social impacts we mean the consequences to human populations of any public or private actions that alter the ways in which people live, work, play, relate to one another, organize to meet their needs and generally cope as members of society. The term also includes cultural impacts involving changes to the norms, values, and beliefs that guide and rationalize their cognition of themselves and their society (Interorganizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles, 1994). To achieve the outcome that optimizing socio-cultural impact, the organizer should reduce the negative impacts and magnify the positive impacts. Tassiopoulos Johnson (2009) summarized the social impacts that brought by event tourism as follow: Negative impacts of tourism: Sex The sexual industry has grown rapidly rely on the mega-sport event due to some event attendees travel abroad to enjoy uninhibited casual sexual encounters and result on a bad impact of the local. For example, as many as 40,000 women could enter South Africa to work as prostitutes during this years football World Cup 2010 (The Telegraph, 2010). The grave danger of this growth has led to the spreading of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases (Cooper, et al., 2005). Health There are diseases such as swine flu should be noted when people from different countries interact. For example, the recording of more than 8500 cases of malaria infections in the UK, which have been a result of tourist and visiting friends and relatives (VFT) traffic to malaria-infected destinations. These diseases may not fatal but they can cause social and economic stress to the host community. Commodification Commodification implies that the demands of tourism (inclusive of events) have led to the mutation and sometimes the destruction of the meaning of cultural performances and special events. Staged authenticity refers to simulated experiences that are developed to satisfy the needs of the visitor. Standardization refers to where the visitor attending an event searches for the familiar, leading to a loss of cultural diversity (Cooper, et al., 2005). Disruption of lifestyle of residents Sherwood (2007) refers to increases in traffic and noise and the general disruption to normal daily routines caused by the hosting of an event in the destination. Furthermore, overcrowding, congestion and noise are ascribed to an influx of event visitors in the host destination. This may cause that resident exodus, for instance, third of Britons holidaying abroad this summer have deliberately chosen dates to avoid London 2012 (Gerges, 2012). Crime and vandalism Many scholars such as Mathieson and Wall (1982) have suggested that large numbers of visitors to an event carrying relatively large amounts of money and valuables with them will provide a source for illegal activities including drug trafficking, robbery, vandalism and violence. For example, only 10 weeks before the FIFA World Cup 2010, in South Africa, there were 50 murders happened in one day while the South Africas murder rate actually dropped slightly last year (Tay, 2010). Positive impacts of tourism: The fostering of community/civic pride Events can be used to put new life into ceremonies and rituals, making them come alive, combining them with skills and crafts. This can inspire and assist with fostering local pride of a host community and provides the best possible experience for the event attendee (Tassiopoulos Johnson, 2009). Creating sociocultural awareness and peace Events take people to new places and can broaden their understanding and knowledge of other cultures and environments. This can be regarded as an educational process and, if channeled properly, this education can lead to greater awareness of, and sympathy and admiration for, other societies. Cultural exchange that takes place between the event attendee and the host community can assist in fostering peace. The belief in the relationship between tourism and peace is so strong that in 1986 the International Institute for Peace through Tourism was set up. Shared infrastructure When developments for events take place, for example, the FIFA 2010 World Cup in South Africa, the local infrastructure is often enhanced to meet the needs of the developments. The host community can find that the quality of their life is enhanced through being able to enjoy this improved infrastructure. This type of infrastructure can include upgrading sporting venues, improvement of airports and general transportation. Direct sociocultural support The funding generated from various events can provide funds to assist to restore heritage sites, conserve natural and cultural sites, or assist local charities. The proceeds earned from these events in terms of registration fees and goods sold are donated to various charities within the local community. 2.4.2 Environmental impact The environmental impact indicates that (Mathieson Wall, 1982; Jenner Smith, 1991; Boers Bosch, 1994; Puczko Ratz, 2002; 2005): Impacts on the natural environment, i.e. air quality, geological factors, water quality, depletion of natural resources, flora and fauna; Impacts on the man-made environment, i.e. buildings visual impacts, changes in land use, infrastructure; Impacts on the ecosystem. The depletion of natural resources is accelerated by the use of fossil fuels in transportation, the heating of accommodation and the operation of catering facilities (which are usually non-renewable energy sources like coal, crude oil or natural gas). In more environment-friendly solutions, heating and energy consumption is based on hydro, solar or wind energy. Wasteful and careless use of the drinking water supply significantly impairs the effectiveness of water management, and decreases available freshwater resources. The wasteful use of the water supply could be avoided by a more environmentally friendly attitude and modern technology. The positive elements of the environmental impacts most commonly catalogued relate to the new facilities that might not have been politically or financially feasible without the event. On the negative side, growing attention is being focused on the environmental damage due to development for mega sports events (Tolios, 1997). 2.4.3 Economic impact Event tourism can generate positive economic impacts, in addition to longer-term place marketing benefits and media exposure for destination, along with sporting or cultural policy benefits (Musgrave Raj, 2009). à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¤Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¨Ã…  Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¦Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ µÃ¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã…“à ¥Ã‚ ²-à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ §Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ½Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¦- ¹Ãƒ ©Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ While these impacts are extremely relevant and often very important, an honest assessment of the value of a particular mega sports event must also include estimates of the negative impacts, such as commodity price increases a

Industrial Revolution Essay -- essays research papers

How Did The Industrial Revolution Affect A Person’s Quality of Life? One’s quality of life is defined as the degree of well-being felt by a person or a group of persons. It is concerned with a citizen’s consumption of goods and services, human rights and the environment. The industrial revolution have produced great wealth to many citizens that influences their state of well being. Others may argue that the changes and advancements in society have brought the burden of scarce resources, diseases and pollution among it’s people. Rather the opposite is true, the positive effects that the revolution have introduced such as the high availability of employment, food, and human rights and the opportunity for future growth overpowers these problems. Therefore it is accurate to say that the benefits of the industrial revolution have improved one’s quality of life. One characteristic that concerns the condition of a person’s life is the freedom for an occupation. This period of change have conducted the use of machinery for many types of production. Some believe that the substitution of machines for human labor have created high rates of unemployment for many nations. Before the revolution, jobs were very limited because work was accomplished through animal power and hand labor. Also many tasks required men with considerable skills which could only be accomplished through long hours of work and practice. In the past and in the present it could be clearly seen that the sprouting fa...

Diabetes Mellitus Essay -- essays research papers

Diabetes Mellitus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diabetes is a chronic, genetically determined, debilitating disease that affects every organ system. There are two major types of diabetes: Type I and Type II. Type I or insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), is caused by the autoimmune destruction of the insulin producing cells of the pancreas and is usually, but not always diagnosed in childhood. People with type I diabetes must take insulin shots in order to survive. Type II diabetes or non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), are usually diagnosed in adulthood. They produce insulin, but their bodies do not use it effectively or properly. While many modern diseases plague society, diabetes has been known for many centuries (Juvenile Diabetes Foundation, 1-3).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Type I diabetes is usually diagnosed in children and young adults and was previously known as juvenile diabetes. In type I diabetes, the body does not produce insulin. Insulin is necessary for the body to be able to use sugar. Sugar is the basic fuel for the cells in the body, and insulin takes the sugar from the blood into the cells. When sugar builds up in the blood instead of going into cells, it can cause two problems: cells may be starved for energy, and over time, high blood sugar levels may hurt your eyes, kidneys, nerves, or heart.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Type II diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. In type II diabetes, either the body does not produce enough insulin or the cells ignore the insulin. Insulin is necessary for the body to be able to use sugar. Type II diabetes accounts for 90 to 95% of diabetes. Type II diabetes is nearing epidemic proportions, due to an increased number of older Americans, and a greater prevalence of obesity and sedentary lifestyles (Hoffman, 34-49).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diabetes is the leading cause of death. It is the leading cause of kidney failure, adult blindness, and non-traumatic amputations. People who have diabetes are two to four times more likely to have a heart attack or a stroke. Life expectancy of people who have this disease, on the average is fifteen years, less than that of people who do not have the disease. It is also the leading cause of nerve damage (Hoffman, 34-49).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  IDDM can cause problems that should be prepared for. The three key problems: Hyp... ...r and neurological diseases. Chronic hyperglycemia activates a metabolic reaction cascade that leads to cellular damage in small to medium blood vessels and peripheral nerves. Nerve damage is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus, and can lead to impotence, incontinence, and loss of sensation from affected areas (Saladin, 656).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last effect makes a patient dangerously unaware of major injuries, which can fester from neglect and contribute to gangrene and the necessity of amputation. Many diabetics lose their toes, feet, or legs to the disease. The cardiovascular effects include degeneration of the small arteries of the retina and the kidneys, leading to blindness and kidney failure as common complications. People with type I diabetes are more likely to die of kidney failure than those with type II diabetes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diabetes also promotes atherocslerosis, the blockage of blood vessels with fatty deposits, causing poor circulation. In type II diabetes, the most common cause of death is heart failure stemming from atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries. Atherosclerosis also contributes to renal failure and gangrene.

Mao Zedong :: essays research papers

Mao Zedong or Mao Tse-tung Pronounced As: mou dzu-doong , 1893-1976, founder of the People's Republic of China. One of the most prominent Communist theoreticians, Mao's ideas on revolutionary struggle and guerrilla warfare were extremely influential, especially among Third World revolutionaries. Of Hunanese peasant stock, Mao was trained in Chinese classics and later received a modern education. As a young man he observed oppressive social conditions, becoming one of the original members of the Chinese Communist party. He organized (1920s) Kuomintang-sponsored peasant and industrial unions and directed (1926) the Kuomintang's Peasant Movement Training Institute. After the Kuomintang-Communist split (1927), Mao led the disastrous "Autumn Harvest Uprising in Hunan, leading to his ouster from the central committee of the party. From 1928 until 1931 Mao, with Zhu De and others, established rural soviets in the hinterlands, and built the Red Army. In 1931 he was elected chairman of the newly established Soviet Republic of China, based in Jiangxi province. After withstanding five encirclement campaigns launched by Chiang Kai-shek, Mao led (1934-35) the Red Army on the long march (6,000 mi/9,656 km) from Jiangxi north to Yan'an in Shaanxi province, emerging as the most important Communist leader. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) the Communists and the Kuomintang continued their civil war while both were battling the Japanese invaders. The civil war continued after war with Japan had ended, and in 1949, after the Communists had taken almost all of mainland China, Mao became chairman of the central government council of the newly established People's Republic of China; he was reelected to the post, the most powerful in China, in 1954. In an attempt to break with the Russian model of Communism and to imbue the Chinese people with renewed revolutionary vigor, Mao launched (1958) the Great Leap Forward. The program was a failure, 20 million people starved, and Mao withdrew temporarily from public view. The failure of this program also resulted in a break with the Soviet Union, which cut off aid. Mao accused Soviet leaders of betraying Marxism. In 1959 Liu Shaoqi, an opponent of the Great Leap Forward, replaced Mao as chairman of the central government council, but Mao retained his chairmanship of the Communist party politburo. A campaign to re-establish Mao's ideological line culminated in the Cultural Revolution (1966-76). Mass mobilization, begun and led by Mao and his wife, Jiang Qing, was directed against the party leadership. Liu and others were removed from power in 1968.

Developmental Defects of Teeth

developmental defects of teeth with recent genetic concepts INTRODUCTION: Disorders of development of teeth may be prenatal or postnatal in origin and may be inherited or acquired. Their recognition and evaluation requires a thorough knowledge and evaluation of the normal chronology of the human dentition and of the normal development and structure of the teeth.Disorders of development of teeth of teeth may be due to abnormalities in the differentiation of the dental lamina and the tooth germs, causing anomalies in the number, size and form of teeth (abnormalities of morphodifferentiation) or to abnormalities in the formation of the dental hard tissues resulting in disturbances in tooth structure (abnormalities of histodifferentiation). Abnormalities of histodifferentiation occur at a later stage in development than abnormalities of morphodifferentiation; in some disorders both stages are abnormal. Histophysiology of tooth development:A number of physiologic growth processes particip ate in the progressive development of the teeth. These are – 1. Initiation The dental lamina and associated tooth buds represent those parts of the oral epithelium that have the potential for tooth development. Different teeth are initiated at different times. Initiation induction requires ectomesenchymal epithelial interaction. A lack of initiation results in the absence of either a single or multiple teeth or complete lack of teeth. Abnormal initiation may result in the development of single or multiple supernumerary teeth. 2. ProliferationEnhanced proliferative activity after initiation results successively in the bud, cap and bell stages of the odontogenic organ. Proliferative growth causes regular changes in the size and proportions of the growing tooth germ. A disturbance has entirely different effects according to the time of occurrence and the stage of development that it affects. Tooth anomalies may include disturbances in the size, proportion or number of teeth 3. H istodifferentiation It succeeds the proliferative stage. The formative cells of the tooth germ developing during the proliferative stage undergo definite morphologic as well as functional assignment.Differentiation of odontoblasts and ameloblasts takes place resulting the formation and apposition of enamel and dentin. Disturbance is the stage results in defects in the structure of tooth like amelogensis imperfecta type 1 and 4. 4. Morphodifferentiation The morphologic pattern or basic form and relative size of the future tooth are established by morphodifferentiation that is by differential growth. Dentinoenamel junction and dentinocemental junctions are established. Disturbances in morphodifferentiation may affect the form and size of the tooth without impairing the function of the ameloblasts or odontoblasts. 5. ApppositionIt is the deposition of the matrix of the hard dental structures. Defects in apposition results in anomalies like amelogenesis imperfecta type 2, dentin dysplas ia. 6. Mineralization and Maturation After matrix formation full mineralization and dental hard tissue maturation. Anomalies like amelogensis imperfecta type 3, fluorosis and interglobular dentin. CLASSIFICATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS OF TEETH 1. Anomalies of initiation and proliferation – anomalies of number hypodontia and anodontia hyperdontia – anomalies of size Microdontia Macrodontia – anomalies of shape Germination Fusion Concrescence 2. Anomalies of morphodifferentiation anomalies of size and shape Dilacerations Dens invaginatus Dens evaginatus Taurodontism Talon cusp 3. Anomalies of histodifferentiation – enamel defect Amelogensis imperfecta type I – dentin defect Dentinogensis impefecta type I,II,III 4. Anomalies of apposition – enamel defects Amelogensis imperfecta type II, IV Enamel hypoplasia Enamel pearl – dentin defects Dentin dysplasia Regional odontodysplasia – cementum defects Hypercementosis Hypophophatasia 5. Anomalies of mineralization – enamel defects Amelogenesis imperfecta type III Enamel fluorosis Anomalies of initiation and proliferation Development disturbances in number a. ypodontia and anodontia True anodontia or congential absence of teeth may be of two types Total anodontia – in which all teeth are missing. It may involve both deciduous and permanent teeth. It is a rare condition when it occurs it is frequently associated with generalized disturbances, hereditary ectodermal dysplasia. Partial anodontia (hypodontia or oligodontia) Hypodontia when there is lack of development of one or more teeth Oligodontia is a subdivision of hypodontia indicating the lack of development of six or more teeth. An incidence of 1. 5 – 10% is seen excluding 3rd molars in permanent dentition and . 09 – . % for primary dentition. Most frequently affected teeth are 3rd molars, mandibular 2nd premolar, maxillary lateral incisor and maxillary 2nd premolar. In case of deci duous dentition usually maxillary lateral incisor are missing. According to Grahen and Granath there is a close correlation between congenitally missing deciduous teeth and their permanent successors suggesting a genetic factor. A familial tendency for this defect is noted. Graber reported enough evidence that it is actually the result of one or more point mutations most often transmitted in an autosomal dominant pattern with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity.Some investigators implied that hypodontia is a normal variant suggesting that humans are in an intermediate stage of dentitional evolution. A proposed future dentition would include one incisor, one canine, one premolar and two molars per quadrant. Hypodontia correlates with the absence of appropriate dental lamina. Mostly this is due to genetic alteration. However, environmental factors like trauma, infection, radiation and endocrine disturbance may also result in loss of developing tooth bud. Hypodontia is asso ciated positively with microdontia, reduced alveolar development, increase free way space and retained primary teeth.Pax 9 gene maps to chromosome 14, it encodes a transcription function that is important in the development of pharyngeal pouches. Its mutation may lead to congenitally missing teeth. Syndromes associated with hypodontia: – cleft lip/palate – crouzon syndrome – down syndrome – hyphidrotic ectodermal dysplasia – ellis van crevald syndrome – oro facial digital syndrome b. hyperdontia it is the development of an increase number of teeth. Genetics of hyperdontia suggests an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance with incomplete penetrance. The variable expression and penetrance of the gene may be affected by the environmental factors.The development of hyperdontia is development of excess dental lamina which leads to formation of additional teeth. An incidence of . 3-3% and a male to female ratio of 2:1 is noted. It occurs most frequently in permanent dentition and approximately 90% of cases present in maxilla with a strong predilection for the anterior region. Terms used to describe supernumerary tooth depending on their location i. Mesiodens is located in the maxillary incisor resion. It is the most common supernumerary. ii. Distodens/ distomloar is the accessory fourth molar iii.Paramolar is a posterior supernumerary tooth situated lingually or buccally to a molar tooth. Classification based on morphology In the primary dentition morphology is usually normal or conical. Greater variety is seen in case of permanent dentition Conical is a small peg shaped conical tooth and is the most common supernumerary. It develops with root formation ahead or at an equivalent stage to that of permanent incisor. It can result in rotation or displacement of the permanent incisor but rarely delays eruption. Tuberculate possess more than one cusp or tubercle and is barrel shaped.Root formation is delayed as compared to pe rmanent incisors. They are often paired and are commonly located on the palatal aspect of the central incisors. It results in delayed eruption of the incisors. Supplemental refers to a duplication of teeth on the normal series and is usually found at the end of the tooth series. Most commonly permanent maxillary lateral incisor is the supplemental supernumerary. Majority of the deciduous supernumeraries are of this type. Odontome is listed as the fourth category by Howard. It is a hamartomoatous malformation nd is composed of more than one type of tissue called composite odontoma. Mainly two types are there complex and compound. Syndromes associated with hyperdontia 1. cleft lip/palate 2. cleidocranial dysplasia 3. gardner syndrome 4. oro facial digital syndrome Developmental disturbances in size of tooth a. microdontia – teeth which are smaller than normal. Females demonstrates a higher a frequency of microdontia and hypodontia. Three types are – True generalized micr odontia in this all the teeth are smaller than normal. It is seen in cases of piutatry dwarfism, Down syndrome, congenital heart diseases. Relative generalized microdontia normal slightly smaller teeth present in the jaws larger than normal producing an illusion of microdontia. Role of hereditary as jaws are inherited from one aren’t and tooth size from other parent. – Microdontia involving single tooth is common condition affects maxillary lateral incisors and 3rd molar most commonly. b. macrodontia – teeth that are larger than normal. Three types similar to that microdontia – True generalized macrodontia all teeth are large. Seen in cases of pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia with hyperinulinism. Relative generalized macrodontia presence of normal teeth in similar jaw giving an illusion of macrodontia – Macrodontia of single tooth relatively uncommon. Occasionally seen in cases of hemihypertrophy of the face. Should not be confused with f usion of teeth. Development disturbances of shape of teeth a. germination – anomalies which arise from an attempt at division of single tooth germ by an invagination with resultant incomplete or complete formation of teeth. Incidence of . 5% is seen and it more common in primary dentition. Higher frequency in maxillary anterior region.It may retard eruption of permanent successor. Usually appear as one with two completely or incompletely separated crowns that have a single root and root canals. Twining production of equivalent structure by divisions resulting in one normal and one supernumerary tooth. Etiology is unknown although a genetic basis has been suggested. b. fusion – union of two normally separated tooth germs. Depending upon the stage of development of the teeth at the time of the union. More common in the deciduous than in the permanent dentition. Union by dentin, separate pulp chambers/ canals. May retard eruption of permanent successor. . concrescence â⠂¬â€œ form of fusion which occurs after root formation. Teeth are united by cementum only. As a result of traumatic injury or crownding of teeth with resorption of the interdental bone. More frequently in the posterior and maxillary region. Anomalies of morphodiferentiation Anomalies of size and shape a. dilaceration: An angulation or a sharp bend or curve in the root or crown of a formed tooth. Due to trauma during the period in which the tooth is forming, with the result that the position of the calcified portion of the tooth is changed and the remainder of the tooth is formed at an angle.Syndrome associated with dilaceration. Lamellar ichthyosis. Present difficulty at the time of extraction. b. dens invaginatus: dens in dente It is a deep surface invagination of the crown or root that is lined enamel. Results due to invagination in the surface of tooth crown before calcification has occurred. This can be due to increased localized external pressure focal growth retardation and fo cal growth stimulation in certain areas of the tooth buds. The permanent maxillary lateral incisors are the teeth most frequently involved. Two forms are usually seen as Coronal dens in dente – more frequent prevalence varies from . 4% to 10%. Depth of iinvagination varies from a slight enlargement of the cingulum pit to deep infolding that extends to the apex. Radicular dens in dente – rare and thought to arise secondary to proliferation of hertwig’s root sheath with the formation of a strip of enamel that extends along the surface of the root. Radiographiclaly the affected tooth demonstrates an enlargement of the tooth. It chances of caries and pulp infection. c. dens evaginatus – Leong’s premolar it is a developmental condition that appears clinically as an accessory cusp or a globule of enamel on the occlusal surface between the buccal and lingual cusps.Unilaterally or bilaterally with an increased mandibular predominance. Pathogenesis is the p roliferation and evagination of an area of the inner enamel epithelium and subjacent odontogenic mesenchyme in to the dental organ during early tooth development. If seen in association with another varaiton of coronal anatomy. Shovel shaped incisors affected incisors demonstrate prominent lateral margins, creating a hollowed lingual surface. Maxillary incisor is the most commonly affected. This extra cusp may contribute to incomplete eruption, displacement of teeth and/or pulp exposure with subsequent infection following occlusal wear or fracture. . taurodontism – it is an enlargement of the body and pulp chamber of multirooted tooth with apical displacement of the pulpal floor and bifurcation of the roots. Overall shape of the taurodont resembles that of the molar teeth of cud chewing animals â€Å"bull like† Shaw classified taurodont teeth into 3 division according to the degree of apical displacement of pulpal floor – hypotaurodont (mild) – mesotaurod ont (moderate) – hypertaurodont (severe) may occur as an isolated trait or as a component of specific conditions like 1. klinfilter’s syndrome . amelogenesis imperfecta 3. orofacial digital syndrome 4. hypohydrotic ectodermal dysplasia 5. tricho dento osseous syndrome 6. down syndrome It is seen that taurodontism may develop in presence of any one of a large number of different genetic alterations. These findings suggest that chromosomal abnormalities may disrupt the development of the tooth form and that taurodontism is not the result of any specific genetic abnormality e. talon’s cusp – Is also known as dens evginatus of the anterior teeth. It is a well delineated cusp that is located on the surface of an anterior tooth.Predominantly affects permanent dentition esp maxillary lateral incisors. It projects from the lingual surface of the affected tooth and forms a three pronged pattern that resembles an eagle’s talon. The cusp blends smoothly with the tooth except that there is a deep development groove where the cusp blends with the sloping lingual tooth surface. It is associated with other dental abnormalities like supernumearary teeth, odontomas, impacted teeth; peg shaped lateral incisors and dens invaginatus. It is also associated with other syndromes like Rubinstein Tyabi syndrome & Sturge Weber syndrome.Complications like interference with occlusion, comprised esthetics, displacement of teeth, caries, periodontal problems and irritation of the adjacent soft tissue may occur. ANOMALIES OF HISTODIFFERENTIATION Enamel defects a. Amelogenesis imperfecta type I AI is a heritable enamel defect in the absence of any systemic disease. Reported incidence varies from 1:14000 to 1:4000. Multiple inheritance patterns are noted. It may differentiated into 4 main groups depending on the clinical presentation and the likely stage of enamel formation that is primarily affectes. – hypoplatic hypocalcified – hypomature â⠂¬â€œ hypomature hypoplastic with taurodontism Each group is further subdivided into several subgroups depending on the mode of inheritance as well as the clinical appearance of the defective enamel. Genetic studies – have shown that etiology of AI is related to the alteration of genes involved in the process of formation and maturation of the enamel. X linked AI has shown the defective gene is closely linked to the locus DXS85 at Xp22. this site has been identified as the general location of the human gene amelogenin the principal protein in the developing enamel.In the case of autosomal dominant type of AI the locus of the defective gene is on the ch 4q21 to which enamel protein enamelin maps. AI type I Hypoplatic The basic alteration centers an inadequate deposition of enamel matrix. Any matrix present is mineralized appropriately. Subgroups (Witkop 1989) I A – hypoplastic, pitted AD I B – hypoplastic, local AD I C – hypoplastic, local AR I D – hypoplastic, smooth AD I E – hypoplastic, smooth XR I F – hypoplastic, rough Ad I G – enamel agenesis, AR Clinical feature: – In the generalized pattern pinpoint to pinhead sized pits are scattered across the surface of the teeth. Buccal surfaces of the teeth are affected and staining of these pits may occur – In the localized pattern, the affected demonstrate horizontal rows of pits a linear depression. The altered area is located in the middle third of the buccal surface of teeth. – The type IC is more severe and typically demonstrate involvement of all teeth in both dentitions – In type ID the enamel of all teeth exhibits a smooth surface and is thin hard and glossy – Anterior open bite is seen and teeth exhibit a thin peripheral outline of radiopaque enamel on radiograph – In type IE this is a lesion showing lionization effect. In females the teeth would exhibit alternating zones of normal and abnormal enamel. Males exhibit diffuse thin, smooth and shiny enamel in both dentitions. The teeth have the shape of crown formation with open contacts. – In the rough pattern, the enamel is thin, hard and rough surfaces. An anterior open bite is common. – In enamel agenesis demonstrate total lack of enamel. The teeth are the shape and color of the dentin. The surface is rough. Dentin defects b. Dentinogenesis imprfecta A hereditary developmental disturbance of the denitn in the absence of any systemic disorder.This is an autosomal dominant condition affecting both deciduous and permanent teeth. Affected teeth are gray to yellowish brown and are tulip shaped. Genetic studies show that the gene defective maps to chromosome 4 in case of type II. It encodes a protein called dentin sialophosphoprotein and constitutes about 50% of the noncolllagenous component of dentin matrix. DI type I is due to mutational changes in gene coding pro alpha 1, pro alpha 2 chains of type I collagen, major protein of organic matrix in bone and dentin.Recent studies report that type II and type III arise from a single mutation of DSPP gene and that these are not separate disease but rather phenotypic variation of a single disease. Acc. to Sheild’s classification DI type I – osteogenesis imperfecta with opalescent teeth DI type II – isolated opalescent teeth DI type III – isolated opalescent teeth Brandywine Extensive studies have proven that DI is a disorder distinct from Osteogenesis imperfects so a revised classification is proposed DI type I corresponds to type II of Sheild’s Type II corresponds to type III of Sheild’sThere is no substitute for type I of Sheild’s classification Clinical and radiographic features – deciduous teeth are affected most severely followed by the permanent incisors and first molars – enamel is normal but separates easily from dentin because of defective dentinoenamel junction – once exposed the d entin often demonstrates significantly accelerated attrition – radiographically, the teeth have bulbous crowns cervical constriction thin roots and early obliteration of the root canals and pulp chambers. Type III has shell teeth demonstrating normal thickness enamel in association with extremely thin dentin and dramatically enlarged pulps Histologic features – The dentin adjacent to the enamel junction appears similar to normal dentin but the remainder is distinctly abnormal – Short tubules course through an atypical granular dentin matrix which often demonstrates interglobular calcificaiton. – Cells can be seen entrapped within the defective dentin Anomalies of apposition Enamel defects a. amelogenesis imperfecta type II & IVAI type II – hypomaturation the enamel matrix is laid down appropriately and begins to mineralize however there is a defect in the maturation of the enamel crystal structure Classified into Type IIA – hypomaturation, p igmented AR Type IIB – hypomaturation, X linked recessive Type IIC – snow capped teeth, AD Genetic studies show that multiple mutations in the AMELX gene in the type IIA AI whereas IIA & C the gene defect is unknown. Clinical features – Affected teeth are normal in shape but exhibit a mottled, opaque white brown yellow discoloration.The enamel is softer than normal and tends to chip from the underlying dentin. Radiographically the affected enamel exhibits a radiodensity that is similar to that of dentin. – Type IIA the surface enamel is mottles and agar brown. Enamel is soft enough to be punctures by an explorer – Type IIB shows lionization that is male exhibit differebti pattern in deciduous and permanent teeth. The deciduous teeth are opaque white with a translucent mottling; the permanent teeth are opaque and may darken with age.Female patients exhibit a similar pattern in both dentitions. The teeth demonstrate vertical bands of white opaque ena mel and normal translucent enamel. Radiographically the bands are not perceptible. – Type IIC exhibits a zone of white opaque enamel on the incisal or occlusal third of the crown. AI type IV – hypomaturation hypoplastic with taurodontism This type of Ai exhibit enamel hypoplasia in combination with hypomaturation. Classified into Type IV A hypomaturation hypoplastic Type IVB hypoplastic hypomaturation Genetic defects in both groups is unknownType IV A the predominant defect is one of enamel hypomaturation in ehich the enamel appears mottled yellowish white to yellow brown. Pits are seen frequently on the buccal surface of the teeth. Radiographically the enamel is similar to dentin in density and large pulp chambers may be seen in addition to varying degree of taurodontism Type IVB the predominant defect is one of enamel hypoplasia in which the enamel is thin; the enamel that is present demonstrates hypomaturation. Radiographically there is decrease in the thickness of the enamel.Both these types are seen in the systemic disorders, trich dento osseous syndrome. Other features seen are kinky hair, osteosclerosis and brittle nails. b. enamel pearl Refers to the presence of enamel in unusual locations mainly the tooth root. These are hemispheric structures that may consist entirely of enamel or contain underlying dentin and pulp tissue. These are thought to arise from a localized bulging of the odontoblastic layer. This bulge may provide prolonged contact between Hertwig’s root sheath and the developing dentin, triggering induction of enamel formation. t is found most frequently on the roots of maxillary molars. The enamel pearls precludes normal PDL attachment with CT. Dentin defects c. dentin dysplasia It is a rare disturbance of dentin formation characterized by normal enamel but atypical dentin formation with abnormal pulpal pathology. It is an abnormality that maps to the same site on ch 4 as does DI type II & III. It too may be an alleli c variant. Classified into Type I radicular dentin dysplasia Type II coronal dentin dysplasia Both these patterns appear to be hereditary diseases, transmitted as an autosomal dominant characteristic.Clinical features – Type I both dentitions are affected although the teeth are clinically normal. The teeth are extremely mobile and exfoliated prematurely – Type II both dentitions are affected. Deciduous teeth have the same color as that in DI but the permanent dentition is normal. – Type I both dentitions roots are short blunt and conical. In deciduous pulp chambers and root canals are completely obliterated. Permanent teeth crescent shaped pulpal remanant remains. Periapical radiolucencies involving intact teeth are present. Type II deciduous dentition presents with completely obliterated pulp chambers. Permanent teeth exhibit an abnormal large pulp chamber in the coronal portion. Histologic features – Type I a portion of coronal dentin is normal. Most of the pulp is obliterated by calcified tubular dentin, osteodentin and fused denticles. New dentin forms around these obstacles giving the characteristic appearance described as Lava flowing around the boulders. – Type II deciduous teeth exhibit amorphous and atubular dentin in the radicular portion while coronal dentin is normal.Permanent teeth same but the pulp has multiple pulp stones. d. regional odontodysplasia It is a localized non hereditary development abnormality of teeth with extensive adverse effects on the formation of enamel, dentin and pulp. Proposed causes – abnormal migration of neural crest cells – latent virus – local circulatory deficiency – local trauma or infection – hyperpyrexia – malnutrition – radiation therapy – somatic mutation pathosis associated with RO – ectodermal dysplasia – epidermal nevi – hypophosphatasia – hydrocephalus neurofibromatosis – Rh incompatib ility – Vascular nevi Clinical features – maxillary teeth esp anterior are most commonly affected – female predilection with a ratio of 1. 4:1 – the affected teeth fail to erupt and their shape is markedly altered – the erupted teeth show small irregular crown that is yellow to brown with rough surface – on x ray they have a very thin enamel and dentin surrounding an enlarged radiolucent pulp – There is lack of contrast between enamel and dentin.Histologic features – marked reduction in the amount of dentin and widening of predentin layer – presence of large areas of interglobular dentin and an irregular pattern if dentin – the reduced enamel epithelium around nonerupted teeth show many irregular calcified bodies known as enameloid conglomerates (also seen in AI) e. hypercementosis It is a nonneoplastic deposition of excessive cementum that is continous with normal radicular cementum Clinical and radiographic feat ures in x ray affected teeth demonstrate a thickening or blunting od the root – the enlarged root is surrounded by the radiolucent PDL space and intact dental lamina – may be isolated or involve many teeth – premolars are involved more frequently – predominantly in adults and the frequency increases with age – factors associated with hypercemntosis i. local 1. abnormal occlusal trauma 2. adjacent inflammation 3. unopposed teeth ii. systemic 1. acromegaly 2. arthritis 3. alcinosis 4. paget’s disease 5. rheumatic fever Histologic features – periphery of root exhibits deposition of an excessive amount of cementum – this may be hypocellular or ostecementum – the material is arranged in concentric layers Anomalies of mineralization a. amelogenesis imperfecta type III hypocalcifeid in this type the enamel matrix is laid down appropriately but no significant mineralization occurs. Classified into Type III A – autosomal d ominant Type IIIB – autosomal recessiveIn both gene defect is unknown. Most common type of AI. Teeth are norma on eruption but the enamel is very soft and easily lost. Enamel is yellow brown on eruption and turns to brown black due to staining. Autosomal recessive are more severe than the dominant type. Radiographically the density is similar for both enamel and dentin. CONCLUSION An understanding of the many disturbances of development of teeth is predicated upon s thorough understanding of the embryology of these structures.Genetic factors are undoubtedly of importance in the development of these defects. REFERENCE: ? Oral pathology by Shafer ? Oral pathology by Somes and Southam ? Oral & maxillofacial pathology by Naville ? Developmental defects of teeth by www. UNC DENTISTRY. com ? Oral histology by Orban’s ? Oral histology by Tencates ? Normal and abnormal dental development- by Isabelle Miletich & Paul T. Sharpe Human Molecular Genetics, 2003. ? Mouse models of t ooth abnormalities Eur J Oral Sci 2008; 116: 1–10